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Fig. 


FIRST    BOOK 


ON 


ANALYTIC 


Anatomy,  Physiology  and  Hygiene, 


HUMAN  AND  COMPARATIVE. 


FOR  COMMON  AND 


AND  FOR  FAMILIES. 


By  CAL^itl   UUTTJm,  A.M.,  M.D., 

4.UTH0R  OF  "  Second  Book  on  Analytic  Anatomy,  Physiology  and  IlYaiENE,"  "  Nkt» 

Analytic  Anatomy,  Physiology  and  Hygiene,"  and  "  New  Outline 

Zoological  Chaets,  Human  and  Comparative." 


WITH    NUMEROUS    ENGRAVINGS. 


PHILADELPHIA 
J.    B.    LIPPINCOTT   &    CO 


z' 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1872,  by 

CALVIN  CUTTER,  A.M.,  M.D., 
In  the-Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington, 


Copyright  also  secured  in  Great  Britain  and  entered  at  Stationers' 
Hall,  London,  and  right  of  Translation  reserved. 


LlPPlNCOTT'S    PRSSS, 
PHILASEtPHIA 


PREFACE. 


This  mai  ual,  designed  for  Common  and  Grammar  Schools  and  fo* 
families,  has  been  prepared  with  several  objects  in  view.  First:  To  so 
limit  its  size,  to  make  its  analysis  so  complete,  to  secure  so  natural  an 
arrangement,  with  so  apposite  and  artistic  illustrations,  as  to  render  it 
usable  in  Common  Schools  having  terms  of  ten  or  fourteen  weeks,  and 
also  to  present  such  topics  for  consideration  as  shall  interest  and  profit 
pupils,  parents  and  the  people  in  the  laws  of  health,  which  are  based 
upon  a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  physiology. 

Second :  To  secure  these  results,  the  outlines  of  the  human  system 
are  discussed  relative  to  structure,  to  use  and  to  health,  with  so  much  of 
Comparative  Anatomy  (Zoology)  as  is  deemed  needful  to  show  the 
analogy  that  exists  between  man  and  the  inferior  animals,  and  to  appe- 
tize  for  more  extended  study  in  the  science  of  life. 

The  treatment  of  some  of  the  common  ills  of  life,  of  wounded, 
poisoned  and  asphyxiated  persons,  is  briefly  discussed  in  their  appro- 
priate chapters. 

Another  object  in  view  has  been  to  make  the  style  clear,  concise  and 
adapted  to  the  references  made  to  illustrative  figures,  to  teach  the  pupil 
the  correct  word,  though  it  may  be  a  technical  term,  believing  it  is 
best  to  use  those  terms  which  express  the  ideas  that  are  peculiar  to  the 
study.  As  the  study  of  objects  is  more  simple  and  impressive  than  mere 
words,  and  as  illustrations  are  more  instructive,  particularly  to  children, 
than  written  sentences,  this  work  has  been  so  arranged  as  to  be  used 
advantageously,  with  object  study  and  topical  instruction,  especially 
with  Outline  Anatomical  Charts,  both  human  and  comparative. 

As  use  is  the  test  oi  f.  text-book,  this  manual  is  respectfully  sutmitted 
\o  teachers  and  to  patrons  of  schools. 

CALVIN   CUTTEK, 

Waerbn,  Mass.,  July,  1872 

1*  5 


ANALYSIS  OF  CONTENTS. 


BECT. 
1. 


CHAPTER  I. 


GENERAL  REMARKS. 


PAGE 
7 


DIVISION  I. 

MO  TOBY  APPARATUS. 

CHAPTER  II, 

THE  BONES. 

2.  Anatomy  of  the  Bones 13 

3.  Physiology "  "      20 

4.  Hygiene      "  "       22 

6.  Comparativo  Osteology 24 

CHAPTER   III. 

THE   MUSCLES. 

6.  Anatomy  of  the  Muscles 36 

7.  Physiology "  "       39 

8.  Hygiene      "  "       42 

9.  Comparative  Myology 48 


DIVISION  II. 
NUTRITIVE  APPARATUS. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  DIGESTIVE   ORGANS. 

10.  Anatomy  of  the  Digestive  Organs....  51 

11.  Physiology  "  "  "    ....  57 

12.  Hygiene       "  "  "    ....  59 

13.  Comparative  Splanchnology 65 

CHAPTER  V. 
ABSORPTION. 

14.  Ana+omy  of  the  Absorbents 75 

35.  Physiology  "  "  78 

16.  Hygiene       »  "  .- 80 

CHAPTER  VI. 
THE   RESPIRATORY  AND  VOCAL   ORGANS. 

17.  Anatomy  of  the    Respiratory  and 

Vocal  Organs 82 

18.  Physiology  of  the  Respiratory  and 

Vocal  Organs 86 

19.  Hygiene    of    the    Respiratory    and 

Vocal  Organs 90 

20.  Comparative  Pneumonology 96 

6 


CHAPTER   VII. 

THE   SKIN. 
SECT.  PA68 

21.  Anatomy  of  the  Skin 102 

22.  Physiology  "  "    107 

23.  Hygiene       "  "    109 

CHAPTER   VIII. 

THE   CIRCULATORY   ORGANS. 

24.  Anatomy  of  the  Circulatory  Organs  115 

25.  Physiology  "  "  "        121 

26.  Hygiene       "  "  "        122 

27.  Comparative  Angiology 124 


CHAPTER  IX 
ASSIMILATION. 
28.  Assimilation,  General  and  Special. 


129 


DIVISION  III. 

SENSORIAL   APPARATUS. 

CHAPTER  X. 

NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 

29.  Anatomy  of  the  Nervous  System...  134 

30.  Physiology  "  "  '•        ...  140 

31.  Hygiene       "  "  «       ...  142 

32.  Comparative  Neurology 148 

CHAPTER  XI. 
SPECIAL  SENSES. 

33.  34,  35.  Sense  of  Smell 154 

36,  37,  38.  Sense  of  Sight 156 

39,40,41.  Sense  of  Hearing 162 

42,43.  Sense  of  Taste 167 

44.  Sense  of  Touch 168 

APPENDIX. 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Care  op  the  Sick 171 

Treatment  of  Wounds 176 

"  OF  Burns  and  Scalds 178 

"          OF  Frost-Bite  and  Chil- 
blain   179 

"  OF     Persons    apparently 

Drowned 180 

Poisons  and  their  Antidotes. Ibl 

Glossary 185 

Index 195 


Anatomy,  Physiology  and  Hygiene. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL  REMARKS. 


\  1.  The  Human  Body  and  a  Machine  Compared. — Division  of 
Objects  in  Nature.  Definitions  of  Terms.  Cells — Tissues — Mem- 
branes.   Life  of  Organized  Bodies.     Great  Divisions  of  the  Body. 

1.  However  complete  a  machine  of  human  invention,  none 
can  be  more  perfect  in  structure,  beautiful  in  appearance,  or 
harmonious  in  action  than  the  "  house  we  live  in." 

A  WATCH,  for  instance,  contains  beautiful  wheels  as  well 
as  delicate  springs,  all  of  which  are  surrounded  by  well-fitted 
cases.  Yet  the  human  body  contains  parts  more  beautiful, 
organs  more  delicate,  enclosed  in  cases  more  perfect  in  con- 
struction. 

The  watch  has  not  within  itself  the  power  of  making  or 
applying  the  oil  necessary  for  its  movable  parts,  but  God  in 
his  goodness  has  so  made  the  parts  of  the  human  body  that 
they  make  and  apply  as  they  need  their  own  oily  fluid. 

The  form  and  size  of  a  watch  do  not  of  themselves  change ; 
but  in  form  and  size  man  varies  from  his  cradle  to  his  grave. 
Growth  and  decay  are  constant  in  the  human  frame. 

If  a  watch  is  injured,  it  has  not  power  to  repair  or  mend 
itself.  Not  so  with  the  human  body:  you  may  bruise  it,  and 
the  injured  part  possesses  a  power  that  is  generally  able  to 
heal  it. 

2.  All  objects  in  the  material  world  are  divided  into  Or- 
ganiCj  as,  animals  and  plants;  and  Inorganic,  as,  minerals, 
earths,  water  and  air. 

Questions. — State  the  comparison  between  a  watch  and  the  human  body — The  oiling 
of  the  parts — The  form  and  size  contrasted.  What  is  constant  in  the  body?  Stale  the 
comparison  when  injuries  are  received.    How  are  all  objects  in  nature  divided? 

7 


S  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 

3.  Every  organized  body  is  composed  of  various  parts  or 
Or'gans.  A  collection  of  organs  so  arranged  that  their  com- 
bined actions  shall  produce  a  given  result  is  called  an  Appa- 
ra'tus.  The  definite,  peculiar  use  of  an  organ  or  apparatus  is 
called  its  Function,  as,  the  digestive  apparatus  consists  of 
the  organs — teeth,  stomach,  liver,  etc. — whose  combined  func- 
tions result  in  the  digestion  of  food. 

4.  The  description  of  the  form  and  position  of  these  organs 
is  called  Anat'omy  ;  *  the  description  of  their  functions, 
Physiol'ogy;  t  the  examination  of  the  conditions  most  favor- 
able to  their  health,  Hy'giene.  J 

5.  Anatomy,  Physiology  and  Hygiene  may  be  considered 
as  of  two  kinds.  Human  and  Comparative.  The  first  pertains 
to  man,  the  latter  to  the  inferior,  or  other  animals  than  man ; 
as  the  horse,  the  whale. 

6.  The  greatest  variety  prevails  in  the  organization  of  dif- 
ferent animals.  In  some  the  functions  are  simple.  In  others 
they  are  complex,  and  generally  the  more  varied  the  functions 
are  in  any  animal,  the  more  complex  will  be  its  structure. 

Fig.  2. 


12  3  4 

Fig.  2.  An  Ideal  Cell. — 1,  Cell,  with  its  wall,  fluid,  nucleus  and  its  nucleolus.  2,  Th« 
same  divided  into  two,  3,  The  same  divided  into  four  cells.  4,  The  same  divided  into 
many  cells.  The  dark  portion,  the  fluid;  the  white  spot,  the  nucleus;  the  inner  small 
circle,  the  nucleolus.    Magnified. 

Observation. — A  good  example  of  a  simple  animal  cell  on  a  large 
scale  is  an  egg;  the  lining  of  the  shell  is  the  cell-wall  or  sac;  the  white 
ia  the  contained  fluid ;  the  yolk  is  the  nucleus  ;  and  its  germ-spot  is  the 
nucleolus.     (Fig.  2.)  • 

What  is  an  organ  ?  An  apparatus  ?  What  is  function  ?  Define  Anatomy — Physiology 
— Ilygieno.  How  may  Anatomy,  Physiology  and  Hygiene  be  considered  ?  Of  what  doec 
Human  Anatomy  treat?  Comparative?  What  is  said  of  the  organization  of  different 
animals?     What  is  the  earliest  form  of  any  living  thing? 

*  Gr.,  ana,  through,  and  tome,  a  cutting. 

f  Gr.,  phusis,  nature,  and  logos,  a  discourse. 

X  Gr.,  hugidnon,  health. 


GENERAL   REMARKS.  9 

7.  The  earliest  organic  form  of  any  living  thing  is  a  Cell; 
and  cells  differently  combined  form  Tissues. 

8.  A  Simple  Cell  consists  of  a  delicate  sac  containing  a 
fluid,  in  which  is  another  very  minute  sac,  called  the  nu'eleus,^ 
which  contains  yet  another  sac — the  nucleolus  or  little  nucleus. 
(Fig.  2.)     Very  minute  particles  or  granules  are  also  seen. 

9.  The  Tissues,  which,  combined  in  various  proportiona, 
make  up  the  organs  of  the  body.  The  principal  tissues  of 
animals  are  the  Muscular^  Nervous  and  Cellular, 

Fig.  3. 


FW.  3.     DiAOBAM  EXHIBITING  THE  RELATIVE  POSITION  OF  THE  ELEMENTS  OP  SEEOUS  ANB 

Mucous  Membranes. — ^1,  Epithelium,  composed  of  nucleated  cells.  2,  Basement  layer. 
3,  Fibrous  layer,  in  which  the  arteries  and  veins  (4)  terminate  in  a  capillary  network. 
Magnified. 

10.  The  simplest  of  all  the  tissues,  resembling  a  film  of 
transparent  gelatin  (jelly),  is  called  Basement  membrane. 
(Fig.  3.)  Upon  it,  in  various  parts  of  the  body,  are  imbedded 
minute  epithelial'\  cells.  Other  membranes  are  called  the 
Se'rous,  Sy no' vial  and  Mucous. 

The  Serous  Membrane  is  that  portion  which  lines  the 
walls  of  certain  closed  sacs  or  cavities.  It  secretes  a  fluid 
called  Serum.  The  Synovial  Membrane  closely  resembles 
the  Serous  as  regards  structure.  It  secretes  a  fluid  called 
Synovia.  The  Mucous  Membrane  opens  to  the  surface.  It 
secretes  a  fluid  called  Mucus.  This  membrane  varies  in  thick- 
ness in  different  parts  of  the  body.--^ 

11.  All  organized  bodies  have  a  limited  period  of  life,  and 


AYhftt  does  a  combination  of  cells  form?  Of  what  does  a  simple  cell  consist?  What 
builds  up  the  organs  of  the  body?  Name  some  of  the  tissues.  What  is  Basement  Mem 
brane?     Serous?     Synovial?     Mucus? 

*  L.,  7iid.        t  Gr.,  epi,  upon,  and  tliell,  a  nipple 

A* 


10 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


this  period  varies  with  every  species.     The  duration  of  some 
planis  is  limited  to  a  single  summer,  while  several  kinds  of 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  5. 


Fig.  4.  A  SiDt.  View  of  the  two  Qkeat  Cavities  of  the  Body  and  their  Organs. — 1,  3^ 
3,  The  loiver  cavity.  1,  The  mouth.  2,  The  thorax.  3,  The  abdomen.  (6,  A  salivary 
gland.  7,  The  oesophagus.  8,  8,  The  trachea  and  lungs.  9,  The  heart.  10,  The  liver. 
11,  The  stomach.  12,  The  colon.  13,  The  small  intestine.  14,  The  lacteals.  16,  The 
thoracic  duct.  16,  The  diaphragm.)  17, 18,  20,  20,  The  walls  of  the  lower  cavity,  com- 
posed of  houes,  muscles  and  skin.  4,  5,  6,  The  upper  cavity  and  its  organs.  4,  The  brain. 
6,  6,  The  spinal  cord.  19,  20,  20,  The  walls  of  the  upper  cavity.  20,  20,  The  spinal 
colniru. 

Fig.  6.  The  Position  of  the  Organs  of  the  Mouth,  Thorax,  and  Abdomen. — 1,  2, 3,  Sa- 
livary glands.  4,  The  larynx  and  trachea.  5,  The  oesophagus.  6,  6,  The  lungs.  7,  The 
heart  8,  8,  The  liver.  9,  The  stomach.  10,  The  pancreas.  11,  The  spleen.  13, 13, 13, 
The  small  intestine.    14, 14, 14,  The  large  intestine. 

trees  live  many  hundred  years.     Some  animals  live  but  a 
short  time,  while  others  live  more  than  a  century. 


What  is  said  of  the  limit  of  life  in  plants  and  animals  ? 


GENERAL   REMARKS.  11 

12.  The  life  of  man  is  shortened  by  disease ;  but  disease  is 
under  the  control  of  fixed  laws — laws  which  we  are  capable 
of  understanding  and  obeying.  How  important,  then,  is  the 
study  of  Physiology  and  Hygiene ! 

13.  To  understand  the  structure  or  use  of  a  machine,  it  is 
necessary  to  examine  the  different  parts  separately  as  well  as 
combined.  The  same  is  true  of  the  animal  frame,  so  "fear- 
fully and  wonderfully  made." 

14.  The  human  body  has  two  great  Cavities :  the  Lower 
and  the  Upper.  (Fig.  4.)  The  same  division  is  applied  to 
the  horse,  to  birds  and  to  fishes. 

The  Lower  (Anterior)  Cavity  contains  the  parts  of  the 
Mouth,  Tho'rax  (Chest),  and  the  Ahdo'men. 

The  Upper  (Posterior)  Cavity  encloses  the  Brairi  and  the 
Spinal  Cord.  These  great  cavities  are  protected  by  walls 
built  up  of  bones,  muscles  (lean  meat),  and  the  whole  is  cov- 
ered by  the  skin. 

How  is  life  usually  shortened  ?  The  importance  of  the  study  of  Anatomy,  Physiology 
and  Hygiene,  Name  the  two  great  cavities  of  the  hody.  What  does  the  lower  cavity 
contain  ?    The  upper  ? 


SYNTHETIC    TOFIC^^L    REVIET^T. 

GENERAL  RKMARKS.    GENERAL  ANALYSIS. 
Cells,  Tissues,  Organs,  ^ppax-atus.  Divisions 


'-'.« 


LIBRARY  '\ 


■'/mGT0H>3: 


DIVISION   I. 

MOTORY  APPARATUS. 

15.  In  every  movement  of  the  body  certain  organs  are 
brought  into  action,  which,  taken  collectively,  constitute  the 
MoTORY  Apparatus.  The  parts  of  this  apparatus  are  the 
Bones  and  Joints,  the  Muscles  and  the  Nerves  of  Motion. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  BONES. 

16.  The  bones  are  firm  and  hard,  and  of  a  dull  white  color. 
\  In  all  the  higher  orders  of  animals,  among  which  is  man,  they 

Fig.  6. 


Fig.  6.  Bones  of  the  Head. — 1,  Frontal  bone.  2,  Parietal  bone.  3,  Temporal  bone. 
4,  Occipital  bone.  5,  Nasal  bone,  6,  Malar  bone.  7,  Upper  jaw.  8,  Os  unguis.  9, 
Lower  jaw. 

are  in  the  interior  of  the  body,  while  in  lobsters,  crabs,  etc., 
they  are  on  the  outside,  forming  a  case,  which  protects  the 
movable  parts  from  injury. 

Name  the  organs  of  the  Motory  Apparatus.  Give  the  structure  of  bones.  Where  are 
tbey  found  in  man?     In  lobsters? 

12 


THE   BONES. 


13 


§  3,  Anatomy  of  the  Bones. — Number  and  Classification  of  the  Bones. 
Bones  oj  the  Head — Of  the  Trunk — Of  the  Lower  Extremities — Of  the 
Upper  Extremities.  The  Joints — Definition  and  Classification.  Im- 
movable Joints — Mixed — Movable.  Cartilage.  Synovial  Membrane. 
Jjigaments.     Formation  of  Bone.     Periosteum. 

17.  The  number  of  bones  in  the  human  body  exceeds  two 
bundled.  These,  for  convenience,  are  divided  into  four  parts: 
Ist  The  bones  of  the  Head.  2d.  The  bones  of  the  Trunk. 
3d  The  bones  of  the  Lower  Extremities.  4th.  The  bones  of 
the  Upper  Extremities. 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  8. 


Fig.  7.  The  Spinai,  Column'. — 1,  2,  3,  Vertebrae.    4,  5,  The  sacrum  and  coccyx  bones  of 
the  pelvis.     6,  6,  Processes. 
F»3.  8.  The  Chest  and  Pelvis. — 1, 1,  The  hip-bones. 

18.  The  BONES  OF  the  head  are  divided  into  those  of  the 
Skull,  Ear  and  Face. 

Tlie  SKULL  is  formed  of  eight  bones.  These  are  joined  to- 
gether by  ragged  edges,  called  sutfures.     (Fig.  6.) 

In  each  ear  are  three  small  bones,  which  aid  in  hearing. 


How  many  bones  in  the  human  body?     How  divided?     Name  the  divisions  of  th« 
bones  of  the  Head.    What  is  said  of  the  Sknll-bones?    The  bone.s  of  the  Ear? 


14  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

In  the  FACE  are  fourteen  bones.  They  support  the  softer 
parts  outside  of  them.     (Fig.  6.) 

19.  The  Trunk  has  twenty-four  Ribs;  twenty-four  bones 
in  the  Spinal  Column  (back-bone);  the  Sternum  (breast-bone); 
four  in  the  Pelvis,  and  one  at  the  root  of  the  tongue.  (Fig.  8.) 

The  Ribs  are  slender  bones  joined  to  the  spinal  column  at 
one  extremity,  and  to  the  sternum  at  the  other  by  means  of  a 
fielding  substance  called  Ca/tifage  (gristle).  The  seven 
upper  ribs  are  united  to  the  sternum  by  separate  cartilages, 
and  are  named  true  ribs.  The  next  three  are  remotely  con- 
nected to  it  by  long  cartilages ;  these  are  called  false  ribs. 
The  lowest  two  are  only  joined  to  the  spinal  column ;  these 
are  the  floating  ribs. 

The  ribs,  sternum  and  spinal  column  form  the  Thorax 
(chest).  This  cavity  encloses  the  heart  and  the  lungs.  The 
shape  of  the  chest  is  conical ;  the  lower  part  or  base  should 
be  broader  and  fuller  than  the  upper  part. 

The  Spinal  Column  has  twenty-four  short  pieces  of  bone 
{Verfebra),  with  sharp  projces^ses  or  spines,  placed  one  upon 
another  like  a  pile  or  column.  Between  each  vertebra  is  a 
thick  piece  of  cartilage  that  is  elastic  like  India  rubber. 
This  yielding  substance  not  only  unites  the  vertebrae,  but  also 
allows  considerable  freedom  of  motion.     (Fig.  7.) 

The  processes  are  so  arranged  that  an  opening  is  formed  in 
each  vertebra.  These  bones,  coming  directly  over  each  other, 
form  a  bony  canal,  in  which  the  Spinal  Cord  is  lodged. 

The  Sternum  is  situated  in  the  middle  line  of  the  front  of 
the  chest,  and  is  held  in  place  chiefly  by  the  ribs.     (Fig.  1.) 

20.  The  Pelvis  is  composed  of  the  Innominatum  (hip- 
bones), the  Sacrum  and  the  Coccyx.     (Fig.  8.) 

The  Innomiis^atum  is  irregularly  shaped.  Each  hip-bone 
presents  the  largest  surface  of  any  bone  in  the  body.     Within 


The  bones  of  the  Face  ?  State  the  number  and  names  of  the  bones  of  the  Trunk,  De- 
scribe the  Ribs.  Distinguish  between  true  and  false  ribs.  How  is  the  Thorax  formed? 
Wliat  is  said  of  the  lowest  two  ribs?  Of  what  is  the  Spinal  Column  composed?  What 
of  the  arrangement  of  the  processes?  Where  is  the  Sternum  situated?  Of  what  is  the 
Pelvis  composed  ?    Describe  the  Innominatum. 


THE   BONES. 


15 


these  bones  are  deep  sockets,  lined  with  cartilage,  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  head  of  the  thigh-bone.     (Fig.  8.) 

The  Sacrum  is  a  wedge-shaped  bone  between  the  hip-bones. 
It  is  the  basis  of  the  spinal  column.     (Fig.  7.) 

The  Coccyx,  at  the  lower  extremity  of 
the  spinal  column,  varies  at  different  ages. 
In  infancy  it  is  cartilaginous ;  in  after  life 
it  becomes  bony. 

21.  The  LOWER  EXTREMITIES  Contain 
sixty  bones :  the  Fe'mur  (thigh-bone) ; 
the  Pa-tel'la  (knee-pan) ;  the  Tih'i-a 
(shin-bone)  ;  the  Fib'u-la  (small  bone  of 
the  leg)  ;  and  the  bones  of  the  Foot. 

The  Femur*  is  the  strongest  and  long- 
est bone  of  the  body.  It  supports  the 
weight  of  the  head,  trunk  and  upper  ex- 
tremities.    (Fig.  1.) 

The  Patella  t  is  a  small  chestnut- 
shaped  bone,  placed  on  the  front  part  of 
the  lower  extremity  of  the  femur,  and 
connected  with  the  tibia  by  a  strong  lig- 
ament.    (Fig.  13.) 

The  Tibia  J  is  situated  at  the  fore  and 
inner  part  of  the  leg.  It  is  triangular  in 
shape,  and  forms  the  sharp  ridge  which 
may  be  felt  on  the  front  part  of  the  leg 
below  the  knee.     (Fig.  1.) 

The  Fibula  §  is  smaller  than  the  tibia, 
and  of  similar  shape.  It  is  firmly  bound 
to  the  tibia  at  each  extremity.  (Fig.  1.) 
/  22.  The  Bones  of  the  Foot  are  the 
i  Tar'sus  (instep),  Metatar'sus  *  and  Pha- 
lan'ges  (toe-bones).     (Fig.  9.) 

The  Sacrum.  The  Coccyx.  Give  the  number  aud  naines  of  the  bones  of  the  Lower 
Extremities.  Describe  the  Femur.  Patella.  Tibia.  Fibula.  State  the  names  of  the 
bones  of  the  Foot. 

*  Lat.,  thigh,      f  Lat.,  Utile  dish.      X  Lat.,  a  flute.      |  Lat.,  a  clasp. 


Fig.  9.  The  Upper  Sur- 
PACE  OF  THE  Bones  of  thh 
Foot. — 1,  The  surface  of 
the  astragulus  or  ankle- 
bone,  where  it  unites  with 
the  tibia.  2,  The  body  of 
the  astragulus.  3,  Calcis 
or  heel-bone.  4,  The  sca- 
phoid. 5,  6,  7,  The  cunei- 
form. 8,  The  cuboid.  9, 
9, 9,  The  metatarsal  bones. 
10,  31,  The  phalanges  of 
the  great  toe.  12,  13, 14, 
The  phalanges  of  the  other 
toes. 


16  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

The  Tarsus  is  formed  of  seven  irregular  bones,  which  are 
BO  firmly  bound  together  as  to  permit  but  little  movement. 
(Fig.  9.) 

The  Metatarsus  consists  of  five  bones.  The  tarsal  and 
metatarsal  bones  form  a  strong  arch  toward  the  inner  and 
lower  surface  of  the  feet.  This  structure  conduces  to  the  elas- 
ticity of  the  step,  and  the  weight  of  the  body  is  transmitted 
to  the  ground  by  the  spring  of  the  arch  in  a  manner  which 
prevents  injury  to  the  numerous  organs. 

The  Phalanges  *  of  the  toes  have  fourteen  bones ;  each  of 
the  small  toes  has  three  ranges  of  bones,  while  the  great  toe  has 
but  two.  In  man  the  great  toe  is  not  opposed  to  the  others  ; 
in  a  well-formed  foot  the  second  toe  is  the  longest.     (Fig.  9.) 

23.  The  Upper  Extremities  contain  sixty-four  bones : 
the  Clav'icle  (collar-bone) ;  the  Scap'ula  (shoulder-blade) ; 
the  Hu'merus  (arm-bone)  ;  the  Ra'diuLs  and  Ul'na  (fore-arm)  ; 
and  the  bones  of  the  Hand.     (Fig.  1.) 

The  Clavicle,*!"  shaped  like  the  italic/,  is  attached  at  one 
extremity  to  the  sternum,  and  at  the  other  to  the  scapula. 
(Fig.  1.)  It  braces  and  thus  prevents  the  shoulders  from 
falling  in  toward  each  other. 

The  Scapula,  a  flat,  thin,  triangular  bone,  is  situated 
upon  the  upper  and  back  part  of  the  chest.  It  lies  upon 
muscles  by  which  it  is  held  in  place  and  moved  in  different 
directions.     (Fig.  30.) 

The  Humerus  is  a  long,  cylindrical  bone  that  extends 
from  the  shoulder  to  the  elbow.     (Fig.  1.) 

The  Ulna  J  is  the  small  bone  of  the  fore-arm,  and  occupies 
the  inner  side.  It  articulates  or  joins  with  the  humerus  at 
the  elbow,  forming  a  perfect  hinge-joint.     (Fig.  1.) 

The  Radius  §  is  placed  on  the  outside  (the  thumb  side)  of 
the  fore-arm.  It  is  larger  than  the  ulna,  and  articulates  with 
it,  both  at  the  elbow  and  at  the  wrist.     The  radius  also  unites 

Describe  the  Tarsus.  The  Metatarsus.  The  Phalanges  of  the  foot.  State  the  number 
and  give  tlie  names  of  the  bones  of  the  Upper  Extremities.  Give  the  form  of  the  Clav- 
icle, state  its  use.  Describe  the  Scapula.  The  Humerus.  What  is  the  Ulna?  With 
what  does  it  articulate?     Where  is  the  Radius  placed?     Give  its  articulations. 

'^  Gr.,  row.       f  Lat.,  clav^is,  a  key.       J  It.,  a  measure.       |  Lat.,  a  spoke. 


THE   BONES.  '  17 

with  the  first  row  of  the  bones  of  the  hand,  forming  the  wrist- 
joint. 

24.  The  Bones  of  the  EEand  are  the  Ca'/pus  (wrist); 
the  Metacar'pus  (palm  of  the  hand)  ;  and  Phalanges  (finger- 
bones). 

Tlie  Carpus  has  eight  bones,  arranged  in  two  rows,  and  so 
firmly  bound  together  as  to  permit  little  movement  of  the 
wrist.  One  row  articulates  with  the  fore-arm,  the  other  with 
the  bones  of  the  palm  of  the  hand.     (Fig.  1.) 

The  Metacarpus  *  has  five  bones,  upon  four  of  which  are 
placed  the  first  range  of  finger-bones,  and  upon  the  other  the 
first  thumb-bone.  This  bone  of  the  thumb  is  the  shortest, 
and  it  is  also  opposed  to  the  other  finger-bones.     (Fig.  1.) 

The  Phalanges  of  the  fingers  have  three  bones,  while  the 
thumb  has  but  two.  The  fingers  are  named,  in  succession,  the 
thumb,  the  index,  the  middle,  the  ring,  and  the  little  finger. 

(Fig-l-) 

Observation. — The  wonderful  adaptation  of  the  hand  to  all  the  me- 
chanical offices  of  life  is  one  cause  of  man's  superiority  over  the  infe- 
rior animals.  This  arises  from  the  size  and  strength  of  the  thumbs  and 
the  different  lengths  of  the  fingers.  y^ 

25.  The  Joints  are  formed  by  the  ends  of  bones,  usually 
enlarged  and  variously  united.  Generally,  one  surface  is 
somewhat  convex  or  rounded  and  the  other  concave  or  cup- 
like, the  two  pai'ts  being  beautifully  fitted  to  each  ofher. 
All  the  Articulations  or  joints  are  distributed  into  three 
groups,  the  Immovable^  the  Mixed  and  the  Movable. 

The  Immovable  Joints  have  the  ends  of  the  bones  placed 
near  each  other,  without  intervening  cartilage ;  as,  the  bones 
of  the  skull  and  some  of  the  bones  of  the  face. 

The  Mixed  Joints  have  the  bones  united  by  cartilage; 
as,  the  bones  of  the  spinal  column. 

The  Movable  Joints  are  the  most  perfect  articulations. 

Name  the  bones  of  the  Hand.  How  are  the  wrist-bones  arranged  ?  Describe  the  bones 
of  the  palm  of  the  hand.  The  finger-bones.  How  are  Joints  formed  ?  Name  the  groups 
of  articulations.  Describe  a  Movable  Joint.  Give  examples.  What  are  Mixed  Joints? 
Give  an  example.    What  is  said  of  Movable  Joints? 

*  Gr.,  metaj  after  or  leyond,  and  karpos,  wrist. 
2» 


18 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


The  bones  are  covered  with  Cartilage^  and  this  surrounded 
by  Synovial  membrane.  Outside  of  and  connected  with  this 
membrane  are  the  special  ties,  or  Ligaments^  as  the  joints  of 
the  upper  and  lower  extremities.     (Fig.  11.) 

26.  Cartilage  is  a  smooth,  pearly-white  substance.  Upon 
the  convex  surface  of  the  bones  that  form  a  joint,  the  cartilage 
is  thickest  in  the  centre,  and  that  which  covers  the  concave 
surface  is  thickest  around  the  edges.     (Fig.  10.) 

Fig.  10.  Fig.  11. 

1 


Fig.  10.  A  Diagram  of  the  Relative  Position  of  tub  Bone,  Cartilage  and  SynoviaIi 
Membrane. — 1,  1,  The  extremities  of  two  bones,  to  form  a  joint.  2,  2,  Tlie  cartilage  that 
covers  the  end  of  the  bone.  3,  3,  3,  S,  The  synovial  membrane,  vi'hich  covers  the  cartilage 
of  both  bones  and  is  then  doubled  back  from  one  to  the  other,  represented  by  the  dotted 
lines. 

Fig.  11.  A  Vertical  Section  op  the  Knee-joint. — 1,  The  femur.  3,  The  patella.  6,  The 
tibia.  2,  4,  Ligaments  of  the  patella.  6,  Cartilage  of  the  tibia.  12,  The  cartilage  of  tho 
femur.    *  *  *  *,  The  synovial  membrane. 

The  Synovial  Membrane  is  a  thin,  flexible  skin  that  se- 
cretes a  fluid  called  Synovia  (joint-oil).  It  is  the  most  perfect 
lubricating  substance  known.     (Fig.  11.) 

The  Ligaments  are  strong  fibrous  bands,  more  or  less  elas- 
tic, that  bind  together  the  joints.     (Fig.  11.) 

27.  In  all  animals  when  very  young  the  framework  (Skel- 
eton) is  cartilaginous  or  animal  matter;  soon  the  pieces  of 
cartilage  become  charged  with  a  mineral  substance — lime — by 
which  they  are  made  firm  and  somewhat  brittle.  This  stage 
of  development  forms  the  bony  skeleton. 


Define  Cartilage.  What  is  the  arrangement  of  Cartilage  in  joints?  Describe  Sjnovial 
Membrane.  What  is  said  of  Synovia  ?  What  are  Ligaments  ?  What  is  said  of  the  Skel- 
eton of  young  animals  ? 

*  Lat.,  ligo,  I  bind. 


THE   BONES. 


19 


Fig 


Observation. — To  show  the  lime  without  the  animal  matter,  burn  a 
bone  in  a  clear  fire,  and  it  becomes  white  and  brittle,  the  animal  part 
having  been  consumed.  To  show  the  animal  matter  without  the  lime, 
immerse  a  slender  bone  for  a  few  days  in  a  weak  acid  (one  part  muriatic 
acid  and  six  parts  water),  and  it  becomes  flexible,  the  earthy  matter 
having  been  removed. 

28.  The  bones  of  the  Skeleton  vary  in  form.  Some  are 
long,  others  are  short  or  broad.  The  long  bones  are  hollow, 
or  have  an  arched  form  com- 
pact upon  the  surface,  and 
spongy  within.  This  open 
texture  increases  toward  the 
ends,  which  it  entirely  fills, 
^excepting  the  very  thin,  hard 
wall.  The  hollow  cavity  is 
filled  with  a  yellowish  fat 
called  Medul'la  (marrow). 

The  flat  bones,  as  those  of 
the  skull,  have  an  outside  and 
an  inside  layer  of  bone,  with 
an  intervening  spongy  texture. 
The  bones  of  the  spinal  col- 
umn and  those  of  the  wrist  are 
less  spongy  than  the  ends  of 
the  thigh-bone,  but  less  com- 
pact than  the  surface  of  the 
shaft. 

29.  The  bones  are  covered 
with  a  dense  membrane  called 

Perios'teum.'^    This  fibrous  membrane  invests  the  skull,  and 
is  called  Peri' cranium.    ^ 


Fia.  12.  Longitudinal  Section  op  thk 
Extremity  op  the  Femur,  exhibiting  the 
arrangement  of  the  spongy  substance. — 
1,  2,  Positions  in  which  the  compact  sub 
stance  appears  to  resolve  itself  into  a  se- 
ries of  arches. 


How  can  the  existence  of  animal  and  earthy  matter  be  proved  ?  Mention  the  different 
forms  of  bones.  The  structure  of  long  bones.  Of  flat  bones.  The  bones  of  the  Sj  iual 
Column.  What  is  Periosteum?  What  is  this  membrane  called  when  it  covers  tha 
ekull-bones  ? 


*  Lat.,  peri,  around,  and  os^  a  bone. 


20 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


g  3.  PiirsiOLOGY  OF  THE  BoNES. — Adaptation  of  their  Structure  to  their 
Uses.  General  Uses  of  the  Bones.  Skill  as  shown  in  the  union  of  the 
Skull  with  the  Spinal  Column.  The  Uses  of  the  Joints.  Classification 
of  the  Joints. 

30.  The  Bones  determine  generally  the  size  of  the  body. 
They  support  all  the  soft  parts,  as  the  flesh  and  vessels,  and 
likewise  afford  a  firm  surface  for  the  attachment  of  the  liga- 


FiG.  13. 


Fig.  14. 


Fig,  13.  Thk  Right  Knee-Joint,  laid  open  fro.a  the  front. — 1,  Articular  surface  of  the 
femur.  2,  3,  Ligaments.  4,  Insertion  of  one  of  these  ligaments  into  the  tibia.  6,  7,  In- 
ternal and  external  cartilages.    8,  Ligament  of  the  patella. 

Fig.  14.  Front  View  of  the  Right  Knee-.]oint. — 1,  Tendon  of  the  extensor  muscle. 
2,  Patella.  3,  Ligament  of  the  patella,  or  tendinous  insertion  of  the  muscle  just  men- 
tioned.   4,  4,  Capsular  ligament.    5,  6,  Internal  and  external  lateral  ligaments. 

ments.  In  their  adaptation  to  their  several  offices  they  ex- 
hibit a  perfection  of  mechanism  worthy  the  infinite  mind  of 
the  Divine  Architect. 

The  use  of  the  various  bones  is  different.  Some  protect 
organs,  as  those  of  the  skull  and  chest ;  some  for  support,  as 
the  pelvis ;  while  others  are  used  for  motion,  as  those  of  the 
extremities  and  spinal  column.  The  bones  of  the  upper  ex- 
tremities exceed  all  others  or  any  instrument  of  art  in  the 
variety  of  motion  and  uses  to  which  they  can  be  put. 

The  union  of  the  spinal  column  with  the  skull  exhibits  one 
of  the  most  ingenious  contrivances  to  be  met  with  in  the  body. 


Give  the  us'^s  of  the  bones.    What  is  said  of  the  union  of  the  Spinal  Column  with  the 
Skull? 


THE   BONES. 


21 


1st.  It  permits  the  backward  and  forward  movement,  as  in 
bowing  and  nodding  the  head.  2d.  The  motion  which  is 
made  in  turning  the  head  from  side  to  side.  This  admlTable 
piece  of  mechanism  affords  great  protection  to  the  spinal  cord 
at  the  top  of  the  neck,  this  being,  perhaps,  the  most  vital 
portion  of  the  whole  body.  Injury  to  it  or  pressure  upon  ifc 
is  instantly  fatal. 

Fig.  15.  .    Fig.  16. 


Fig.  15.  Position  when  the  feet  are  supported. 
Fig.  16.  Position  when  a  seat  is  too  high. 

31.  The  Joints. — The  uses  of  the  joints  are  to  enable  the 
body  to  sustain  greater  weight,  to  diminish  the  force  of  blows 
or  shocks,  to  afford  freedom  of  movement,  to  modify  the  di- 
rection in  the  action  of  muscular  power.         , 

32.  For  simple  union  without  movement,  we  find  the  Im- 
movable joint;  for  great  strength  and  little  movement,  the 
Mixed  joint ;  and  for  full  freedom  of  movement,  the  Movable 
joint.  Of  the  movable  joints  for  motion  in  one  plane  and 
two  directions,  we  find  the  Hinge-joint,  as  the  knee  and 
elbow  joints;  and  for  free  rotary  motion,  the  Ball-and-Socket 

joint,  as  the  hip  and  shoulder  joints.     (Figs.  1,  6,  13.) 

■ ^ 

Enumerate  the  uses  of  the  Joints.    Statf  the  purposes  of  tlie  dilTurent  Ivinrls  of  Jcinta. 


22 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


g  4.  Hygiene  of  the  Bones. — Effect  of  Exercise  upon  the  Bones  0/ 
Children.  Effect  of  Compression — Of  Stooping.  Treatment  of  Frac- 
tures—  Of  Sprains — Of  Felons. 

33.  The  health  of  the  bones  is  promoted  by  regular  exercise. 
The  kind  and  amount  of  labor  should  be  adapted  to  the  age, 
health  and  development  of  the  bones;  neither  the  cartilaginoua 
bones  of  the  child  nor  the  brittle  bones  of  the  aged  man  are 


Fig.  17. 


Fig.  18. 


Fig.  17.  A  Deformed  Thorax  and  Spinal  Column. 
Fig.  18.  A  Chest  Fashionablt  Deformed. 

adapted  to  long-continued  and  severe  exercise.  While  pro- 
tracted exercise  in  childhood  is  injurious,  moderate  and  reg- 
ular labor  favors  a  healthy  development  of  the  bones. 

34.  The  lower  extremities  of  the  very  young  are  not  adapted 
to  sustaining  much  weight;  hence,  to  induce  a  child  to  walk, 
or  to  stand  by  chairs,  while  the  bones  of  the  lower  limbs  are 
imperfectly  developed,  is  productive  of  serious  injury;  **bow" 
*egs  are  thus  produced.     The  benches  or  chairs  for  children 


What  is  the  influence  of  exercise  on  the  health  of  the  bones?    To  what  are  the  lowM 
extremities  of  the  very  young  not  adapted? 


THE   BOXES.  23 

in  a  school-room  should  permit  the  feet  to  rest  upon  the  floor, 
otherwise  the  weight  of  the  limbs  below  the  knee  may  cause 
the  flexible  bone  of  the  thigh  to  become  curved;  the  chairs 
should  also  have  suitable  backs,  and  the  child  be  allowed 
frequent  change  of  position.     (Figs.  15,  16.) 

35.  Compression  of  the  chest  should  be  avoided.  In  youth 
the  ribs  are  very  flexible,  and  a  small  amount  of  pressure 
will  increase  their  curvature,  particularly  at  the  lower  part 
of  the  waist.  By  tight  or  *'snug"  clothing  the  ribs  are  drawn 
down  and  the  space  between  them  lessened,  so  that  in  some 
instances  the  anterior  extremities  of  the  lower  ribs  are  brought 
quite  together ;  hence,  the  apparel  should  be  loose  and  sup- 
ported by  the  shoulders,  both  for  children  and  adults. 

36.  An  erect  position  both  in  sitting  and  standing  should  be 
carefully  maintained.  The  spinal  column  naturally  curves 
from  front  to  back,  but  not  from  side  to  side.  The  admirable 
arrangement  of  the  bones  and  cartilages  permits  a  great  vari- 
ety of  motions  and  positions,  the  elasticity  of  the  cartilages 
always  tending  to  restore  the  spine  to  its  natural  position ; 
but  if  a  stooping  or  a  lateral  curved  posture  be  continued  for 
a  long  time,  the  compressed  edges  of  the  cartilages  lose  their 
power  of  reaction,  and  finally  one  side  becomes  thinned,  while 
the  other  is  thickened.  These  wedge-shaped  cartilages  pro- 
duce permanent  curvature  of  the  spine,  which  is  often  at- 
tended with  disease  of  the  spinal  cord.     (Fig.  17.) 

Observation  1. — The  student,  seamstress  and  artisan  frequently  ac- 
quire a  stooping  position  by  inclining  forward  to  bring  their  books  or 
work  nearer  the  eyes.  The  desk  of  the  pupil  is  often  higher  than  tlie 
tlbow  as  it  hangs  from  the  shoulder  at  rest;  consequently,  in  drawing, 
writing  and  often  in  studying,  one  shoulder  is  elevated  and  the  other 
depressed,  distorting  the  spine.  In  tlie  daily  employments  of  life  chil- 
dren should  early  be  taught  to  use  the  left  hand  and  shoulder  more 
freely.  Distortions  of  the  chest  necessarily  accompany  deformity  of  the 
spine,  and  disease  of  the  heart  and  lungs  follows,  compared  to  which 
the  loss  of  symmetry  is  a  minor  consideration. 

What  is  Raid  of  the  height  of  benches  and  chairs?  Why  should  compression  of  the 
chest  lie  avoided?  Whj-  should  an  erect  position  be  maintained?  IIow  are  distortion! 
produced  ? 


24  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 

2. — EDiinent  physicians  both  in  this  country  and  Europe  state  that, 
among  the  fashionably  educated,  not  one  female  in  ten  escapes  deform- 
ities of  the  shoulders  and  spinal  column.  The  student,  to  prevent  aa 
well  as  to  cure  slight  curvatures  of  the  spine,  should  walk  with  a  book 
or  a  heavier  weight  upon  the  head.  Porters  and  laborers  of  some  coun- 
tries bear  very  great  burdens  upon  their  heads,  and  walk  at  a  rapid  pace 
with  comparative  ease.    Such  persons,  in  general,  have  erect  forms. 

3. — Fractured  or  diseased  hones  and  ligaments  shoidd  receive  special  atte^i* 
iim.  In  fractured  bones  a  surgeon's  care  is  not  only  needed  to  adjas* 
{]  e  parts,  but  for  several  weeks  to  watch  the  reunion,  that  the  limb  may 
not  be  crooked  or  shortened.  In  sprains  the  ligaments  are  not  usually 
lacerated,  but  strained  and  twisted,  causing  much  pain,  and  afterward 
inflammation  and  weakness  of  the  joints.  To  effect  a  cure  there  should 
be  absolute  rest  for  days,  and  perhaps  weeks,  using  tepid  bathing  and 
prolonged  moderate  friction.  More  persons  are  crippled  from  ill-cared- 
for  sprains  than  fractured  bones.  Persons  enfeebled  by  disease,  partic- 
ularly scrofula,  cannot  be  too  assiduous  in  adopting  an  early  and  proper 
treatment  of  injured  joints,  to  prevent  the  affection  called  "white 
swelling." 

4. — The  disease  called  "Felon"  is  an  inflammation  that  commences 
in  or  beneath  the  periosteum.  It  is  attended  with  severe,  throbbing 
pain,  and  the  unyielding  structure  of  the  parts  prevents  much  swelling. 
The  only  successful  treatment  of  this  painful  affection  is  an  early,  free 
opening  through  the  periosteum  to  the  surface  of  the  bone.  The  earlier 
the  incision  is  made,  the  less  the  risk  and  the  suffering.  The  same 
treatment  must  be  adopted  in  inflammation  of  large  bones. 

^  5.  Comparative  Anatomy  (Osteology).  Classification  of  Animals 
according  to  their  structure.  General  Characteristics  of  Vertebrates  and  In- 
vertebrates. Classification  of  Vertebrates.  Compare  Bones  of  the  Head 
of  Vertebrates.  The  Vertebral  Column— The  Thorax — The  Extremities. 
Characteristics  of  Annulosa — Mollusca — Radiaia — Protozoa. 

37.  In  minute  structure  and  chemical  composition  all  ani- 
mals are  essentially  the  same,  but  the  different  functions  and 
habits  require  special  conformations. 

38.  Animals  may  be  separated  into  two  divisions,  Verte- 
bra'ta  (Vertebrates)  and  Invertehra!ta  (Invertebrates).     These 


What  statement  by  eminent  physicians?  What  is  the  prevention  and  cure  for  slight 
»urvatures  of  the  spine?  Give  observation  respecting  fractured  bones.  Sprains.  Felons 
Hame  the  divisions  of  the  Animal  Kingdom. 


THE   BONES. 


25 


are  subdivided  into  five  sub-kingdoms,*  namely,  Verifebrata 
(Back-bone),  An'nulosa  (Ring),  Mollus'ca  (Sac),  Radia'ta 
(Star),  and  Protozo'a.'\ 

Fig.  19.  Fig.  20. 


♦  ... 


....  g 


I  .^ 


Fia.  19.  Diagram  of  a  Transverse  Section  of  a  Vertebrate. — ^1,  The  walls.  2,  The 
sligestive  organs.  3,  Circulatory  organs.  4,  The  ganglia.  5,  The  spinal  cord.  6,  Spinal 
column. 

Fig.  20.  Diagram  of  a  Transverse  Section  of  an  Invertebrate. — 1,  The  walls.  2,  The 
digestive  organs.    3,  The  circulatory  organs.    4,  The  ganglia. 

39.  If  a  Vertebrate  is  divided  transversely,  or  cut  in 
halves,  two  separate  cavities  are  found;  the  upper  cavity 
contains  the  main  mass  of  the  Nervous  System  (Brain  and 
Spinal  Cord).  The  lower  cavity  contains  the  Digestive  and 
the  Circulatory  Systems.     (Fig.  19.) 

If  an  Invertebrate  is  similarly  divided,  only  one  cavity 
is  exhibited;  this  contains  the  Digestive  and  Circulatory 
Systems,  with  the  Gan'glia  (centres  or  enlargement  of  the 
nerves).     (Fig.  20.) 

40.  The  Ganglia  of  Vertebrates  are  placed  on  the  upper 
(dorsal)  side  of  the  cavity,  and  the  circulatory  organs  on  the 
lower  (ventral)  side.     In  Invertebrates  the  Ganglia  are  found 

state  the  Sub-kingdoms.  Give  the  distinctions  of  the  two  divisions.  What  are  Gan- 
glia?   Where  are  they  found  in  Vertebrates? 

*  The  brief  outlines  of  Zoology  introduced  in  this  work  are  arranged 
into  two  divisions,  from  Lamarck.  Writers  on  Natural  History,  as  Liu- 
iiseus,  Cuvier,  Edwards,  Nicholson  and  others,  have  adopted  different 
Bub-kingdoms  numerically.  I  have  chosen  to  arrange  them  into  five 
tnib-kingdoms. 

t  Gr.,  protos,  first,  and  Zoon,  an  animal. 
3  B 


26  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

Oil  the  lower  and  the  circulatory  system  on  the  upper  side. 
(Figs.  19,  20.) 

41.  Vertebrates  have  an  internal  skeleton,  generally  com- 
posed of  bones ;  some  few  are  cartilaginous.  In  vertebrates 
the  spinal  column  is  never  absent.  A  distinctive  character- 
istic of  vertebrates  is  that  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  are  shut 

Fig.  21. 


Fio.  21.  Skeletox  of  the  Cow. — 1,  Frontal  bone  of  the  head.  2,  Upper  jaw  (superior 
maxillary).  3,  Lower  jaw  (inferior  maxillary).  4,  Cervical  vertebrte.  6,  Dorsal  verte- 
brae. 6,  Lumbar  vertebrae.  7.  Sacral  vertebrae.  8,  Caudal  vertebrae.  9,  Scapula.  10, 
Huiuerns.  11,  Radius  and  ulna.  12,  Carpus.  13,  Metacarpus.  14,  Phalanges  (toes). 
15,  Femur.  16,  Tibia.  17,  Tarsus.  18,  Metatarsus.  19,  Phalanges.  In  this  figure  the 
Eame  terms  are  used  as  for  the  corresponding  bones  in  mau  (seo  Fig.  18).  The  common 
names  vary. 

off  from  the  general  cavity  of  the  body.  In  this  sub-king- 
dom are  classed  Mam!mals,  Birds,  Bep'tiles,  Amphib'ians 
and  Fishes. 

Mammals  include  Man  and  all  the  ordinary  quadrupeds. 
This  class  are  characterized  by  having  special  glands  that 
secrete  milk,  by  which  the  young  are  nourished  after  birth. 

Birds  are  oviparous,*  vertebrate  animals,  with  a  double 
circulation,  and  covered  with  feathers. 

In  Invertebrates?  Give  a  characteristic  of  Vertebrates.  State  the  classes  of  this  sub- 
kingdom.  What  animals  ar«  included  in  the  class  Mammals?  Name  the  characteriM. 
t'cs  of  Birds. 

*  Lat.,  ovum,  egg,  and  pario,  to  produce. 


THE   BONES.  '  27 

Reptiles  comprise  a  class  of  vertebrates  with  incomplete 
circulation,  breathe  air  from  birth,  and  are  generally  covered 
with  scales  or  plates. 

Amphibians  are  so  formed  as  to  live  on  land,  and  for  a 
long  time  under  water.  Their  distinguishing  characteristic 
is  that  they  invariably  undergo  some  kind  of  metamorphosis 
or  change  after  birth.  At  first  the  general  conformation  of 
the  body  resembles  fishes ;  at  this  stage  they  breathe  by  gills ; 
subsequently  they  change  form,  and  in  their  adult  state  pos- 
sess air-breathing  lungs.     The  skin  is  generally  naked. 

Fishes  are  oviparous,  vertebrate  animals,  and  breathe  by 
gills.  They  differ  in  the  form  of  the  bodies,  but  the  outline 
is  simple.     They  are  usually  covered  with  scales. 

42.  The  Bones  of  the  Head  of  other  Mammals  resemble, 
in  many  points,  those  of  man.  In  some  quadrupeds,  as  the 
Horse  and  Cow,  the  frontal  bone  of  the  skull  is  in  two  pieces. 
In  the  Elephant  the  skull-bones  unite  in  early  life,  and  thus 
form  but  one  bone.  In  the  Hog  the  parietal  bones  of  the 
skull  are  united  in  one  bone,  while  the  frontal  bone  has  two 
pieces. 

The  great  majority  of  Mammals  possess  teeth,  which  vary 
and  constitute  most  important  characters  for  separating  the 
orders  of  this  sub-kingdom  from  each  other.  The  structure 
of  the  jaw  also  varies.  In  those  animals  provided  with  tusks 
there  are  two  small  bones  (Intermaxillary)  between  the  two 
upper  jaw-bones.  In  the  Horse,  Hog  and  Cow  the  lower  jaw 
consists  of  one  bone.     (Fig.  21.) 

In  Birds  the  bones  of  the  head,  in  number  and  position, 
resemble  Mammals,  but  they  are  early  united,  leaving  no 
trace  of  the  sutures.  The  upper  jaw  of  the  bird  is  so  artic- 
ulated with  the  skull  as  to  admit  of  motion  independent  of 
the  lower  jaw  (which  never  occurs  in  mammals),  and  the 
lower  jaw,  instead  of  being  articulated  directly  with  the  skull, 
is  connected  through  the  intermedium  of  a  distinct  bone  called 
the  Os  Quadratum.     (Fig.  22.) 

Of  Reptiles.    Of  Amphibians.    Of  Fishes.    What  is  said  of  the  bones  of  the  head  in 
Mammals?    Birds? 


28 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


In  Reptiles  the  head-bones  are  irregular  in  form,  and 
greatly  vary  in  number. 

In  Fishes  the  bones  of  the  head  are  numerous  and  irregular, 
and  their  study  is  a  matter  of  much  interest  in  «,cquiring  a 
full  knowledge  of  Natural  History.     (Fig.  24.) 

43.  The  Vertebral  Column  of  other  3fammals,  with  slight 
modifications,  is  like  that  of  man.     The  number  of  cervical 

Fig.  22. 


Fig.  22.  Skeleton  of  a  Bird. — 1,  The  head.  2,  Cerrical  vertebrae.  3,  Dorsal  and  lum- 
bar vertebrse.  4,  Scapula.  5,  Clavicle.  6,  Coracoid  bone.  7,  Sternum.  8,  Ilumeius. 
9,  Radius.  10,  Ulna.  11,  Carpus.  12,  Metacarpus.  13,  13,  Phalanges  (fingers).  14, 
Fcmui-.    15,  Tibia.    16,  Fibula.    17,  Tarsus.    18,  Metatarsus.    19,  Phalanges  (toes). 

vertebrse  is  almost  invariably  seven  ;  the  dorsal  average  thir- 
teen ;  the  lumbar  or  loins,  from  three  to  seven ;  the  sacral, 
usually  four ;  the  caudal  or  tail,  from  four  (the  number  of 
the  coccyx  in  man)  to  forty-six.  The  length  of  any  part  of 
the  column  seems  to  depend  not  so  much  upon  the  number  of 


Reptiles?     Amphibians?    Fishes?     Compare  the  vertebral  column  of  Slammala. 


THE   BONES.  29 

the  vertebrae  as  upon  their  length;  thus  we  find  seven  cer- 
vical vertebrae  in  the  long-necked  Giraffe  and  in  the  short- 
necked  Mole. 

In  Birds  the  flexibility  of  the  neck  enables  any  part  of  the 
body  to  be  reached  by  the  beak.  This  is  owing  to  the  ball- 
and-socket  articulations  and  to  the  great  number  of  cervical 
vertebrae,  which  in  the  swan  are  twenty-four.  The  dorsal 
vertebrae  vary  from  seven  to  eleven,  and  are  generally  consol- 
idated into  one,  but  in  birds  that  do  not  fly  they  remain  dis- 
tinct and  movable.  The  last  caudal  vertebra  has  a  large, 
strong  process,  shaped  like  the  letter  V,  for  the  support  of 
the  large  feathers,  which  act  as  a  rudder  in  flight. 

lu  Reptiles  the  vertebrae  vary  in  number  from  some  twenty- 
four  to  four  hundred,  as  in  the  Python. 

In  Amphibians  the  vertebrae  may  be  hollow  at  both  ends, 
or  rounded  in  front  and  hollow  behind.  In  Frogs  the  spinal 
column  is  short  and  the  dorsal  vertebrae  are  very  long. 

In  Fishes  there  are  but  two  kinds  of  vertebrae,  the  dorsal 
and  the  caudal,  and  these  vary  in  number  from  twenty  to  two 
hundred.  The  vertebral  bodies  present  a  conical,  cup-like 
depression  on  each  side,  which  contains  a  gelatinous  fluid 
having  the  same  use  as  the  elastic  cartilage  between  the  ver- 
tebrae in  Mammals. 

44.  The  Sternum  of  Mammals  is  long  and  narrow  in 
shape,  flat  and  destitute  of  a  keel  or  ridge. 

In  Birds  it  is  much  extended,  and  forms  the  largest  bones 
in  their  bodies.  It  has  upon  its  anterior  surface  a  ridge  re- 
sembling the  keel  of  a  ship,  for  the  support  of  the  muscles  of 
the  chest  used  in  flying.  The  size  is  proportioned  to  the 
powers  of  flight;  hence  in  the  little  Humming-bird,  which  is 
on  the  wing  most  of  the  day,  it  reaches  the  maximum  of  de- 
velopment. 

Of  the  Reptiles,  Serpents  have  no  sternum ;  but  in  Turtles 
it  has  an  extraordinary  development,  and  extends  from  the 
base  of  the  neck  to  the  commencement  of  the  tail,  forming 

What  is  said  of  it  in  Birds  ?    Reptiles  ?    Amphibians  1    Fishes  ?    Speak  of  the  stern  am 
•f  Mammals.    Birds.    Eeptiles. 


30 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 


Fig.  23. 


the  ventral  or  belly  part  of  the  shell-covering.     Fishes  have 
no  sternum  or  breast-bone,  properly  so  called. 

45.  The  Ribs  are  much  alike  in  Mammals,  generally  in 
twelve  pairs;  in  the  Horse,  however,  there  are  eighteen 
pairs. 

In  Birds  the  cartilage  that  unites  the  rib  to  the  sternum  is 

bony,  giving  solidity  to  the  chest. 

In  some  Reptiles,  as  Lizards  and  Crocodiles,  the  ribs  are 

more  numerous  than  in  Mam- 
mals and  Birds,  and  protect  the 
abdomen  as  well  as  the  chest. 
In  the  Turtle  the  ribs  are  ex- 
panded, forming  the  dorsal  part 
of  its  shell,  or  the  roof  of  its 
portable  dwelling-house.  In  Ser- 
pents the  lower  or  anterior  ex- 
tremities of  the  ribs  have  no  car- 
tilage ;  they  aid  in  progressive 
movement  or  crawling,  as  under 
the  skin  their  ends  can  be  placed 
on  the  ground  like  feet. 

Among  Amphibians  Frogs 
and  Toads  have  no  ribs.  In 
Newts  they  are  rudimentary. 

In  some  Fishes  the  ribs  are 
wanting ;  in  others  they  are  very 
complete,     and     surround     the 

trunk;   in  still  others  they  are  connected  with  a  chain  of 

bones  representing  the  sternum. 

46.  The  Clavicle  maintains  the  shoulders  apart ;  hence, 
in  quadrupeds,  where  its  presence  would  be  a  defect,  it  is 
wanting,  as  in  the  Horse  and  Cow. 

The  clavicles  of  Birds  are  peculiar ;  they  unite  at  their  an- 
terior extremity,  forming  a  forked  bone  called  fur'cula  (wish- 


FiG.  23.  Skeleton  op  a  Tortoise. — 
1,  Cervical,  2,  Dorsal,  3,  Lumbar  vertc- 
brie,  4,  Scapula.  5,  Clavicle.  6,  Cor- 
acoid  bone.  13,  Humerus.  14,  Ulna. 
15,  Kadius.  16,  Carpus.  17,  Pha- 
langes (fingers).  7,  Femur.  8,  Tibia, 
9,  Fibula.  10,  Tarsus.  11,  Metatarsus. 
12,  Phalanges  (toes). 


Fishes.     Describe  the  ribs  in  the   different  classes.    Why  not  a  clavicle  in  the  ox? 
Describe  the  clavicle  of  Birds. 


THE   BONES. 


31 


bone).  In  birds  of  powerful  flight,  as  the  Eagle,  the  clavicles 
are  very  strong;  in  others,  as  the  domestic  Turkey,  they  are 
weak.  Connecting  the  scapula  to  the  sternum  is  the  cor'acoid 
bone,  which  is  placed  side  by  side  with  the  furcuia,  and  is 
the  main  source  of  support  to  the  wings  in  flight. 

In  some  Reptiles,  as  the  Tortoise,  both  the  clavicle  and  the 
coracoid  bone  are  found,  while  in  others,  as  Serpents,  both 
are  wanting. 

In  Fishes  the  true  clavicle  is  wanting,  but  in  some  species 
there  is  a  modified  form  of  the  coracoid  bone,  free  at  its  lower 
extremities,  which  may,  perhaps,  subserve  the  purpose  of  the 
clavicle  of  the  higher  animals.     (Fig.  24.) 

Fig.  24. 


Fig.  24.  The  Skblkton  of  a  Haddock 

47.  The  Scapula  is  present  in  Mammals,  Birds  and  most 
Reptiles  and  Fishes.  In  the  Horse  and  Cow  it  is  an  essential 
bone. 

In  Birds  the  scapula  is  long  and  narrow. 
Reptiles,  Amphibians  and  Fishes  have,  in  general,  the  scap- 
ula, but  variously  modified. 

48.  The  Upper  Extremities  in  Mammals  are  never  want- 
ing. In  animals  that  swim  or  burrow  the  humerus  is  short, 
thus  enabling  the  fore  limbs  to  be  used  with  force;  where 
swiftness  is  required,  this  bone  is  long  and  slender.     When 


Reptiles.    Fishes.    Describe  the  scapula  in  Mammals.    Speakof  the  upper  extremities 
»f  Mammals. 


32 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


the  hand  is  used  for  support  instead  of  prehension  or  seizing, 
the  radius  loses  its  power  of  rotation  on  the  ulna. 

The  hand  varies  according  as  it  is  used  for  seizing  food, 
swimming,  flight  or  walking  on  ground  more  or  less  firm. 
The  wrist  is  formed  of  two  rows  of  bones ;  the  number  varies 
from  five  to  eleven.  The  Metacarpal  bones  vary ;  in  the 
Horse  there  is  but  one  bone,  called  canon.  The  fingers  are 
never  more  than  five.  The  Cow  has  two.  The  middle  finger 
is  the  most  persistent,  being  the  only  one  left  in  the  H<^rse. 

Fig.  26. 


Fig.  25. 


Fig.  26.  Diagram  op  an  Annulosa. — 1,  Haemal  or  vascular  system.  2,  BigestiTe  orgaust 
3,  Ganglia. 

Fig.  26.  Diagram  of  the  External  Structure  op  an  Insect. — ^1,  The  head  carrying 
the  eyes  and  antennae.  2,  First  segment  of  the  thorax  with  the  first  pair  of  legs.  3,  The 
second  segment  of  the  thorax  with  the  second  pair  of  legs  and  the  first  pair  of  wings.  4, 
The  third  segment  of  the  thorax  with  the  third  pair  of  legs  and  the  second  pair  of  wings, 
5,  Abdomen  without  legs. 

In  the  "Whale  the  upper  extremities  are  converted  into  swim- 
ming paddles. 

In  Birds  the  bones  that  form  the  limb  proper  or  wing  are 
modified  to  suit  the  special  function  of  flight,  but  essentially 
the  same  parts  are  present  as  in  the  upper  extremities  of 
Quadrupeds. 

In  Reptiles  the  fore  limbs  are  generally  wanting  or  rudi- 
mentary. 

49.  The  Lower  Extremities  in  Mammals  are  sometimes 
absent,  as  in  Whales  and  Dolphins.     In  quadrupeds,  as  they 


Birds.    Reptiles.    Speak  of  the  lower  extremities  in  Mammals. 


THE   BONES.  33 

are  used  mainly  for  support  and  progression,  they  are  less 
modified  than  the  upper  extremities. 

In  Birds  the  femur  is  short  and  straight.  The  tibia  is  the 
chief  or  longest  bone  of  the  hind  limb.  The  fibula  is  united 
to  the  tibia  at  various  distances  down  the  leg.  The  ankle- 
joint  is  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  Tarsus. 

In  some  Reptiles,  as  the  Tortoise  and  Lizard,  the  limbs  are 
composed  of  bones  which  in  number,  form,  position  and  func- 
tions much  resemble  the  corresponding  ones  in  Mammals  and 
Birds.     In  the  Serpent  tribe  the  limbs  are  wanting. 

Fig.  27.  Fig.  28. 


Fig.  27.  Diagram  of  a  Mollusca. — 1,  Alimentary  canal.    2,  Heart.    3,  Cerebral  gan- 
glion.   4,  Pedal  ganglion.    5,  Ganglion  of  digestive  organs  and  muscles. 
Fia.  28.  A  Species  of  Snail. — 1,  A  round  mouth. 

In  Amphibians  the  limbs  are  well  developed.  In  Fishes 
the  extremities  are  rudimentary,  being  represented  by  fins. 

50.  The  Annulosa*  are  numerous,  embracing  animals 
having  an  external  skeleton  made  up  of  segments  or  rings 
arranged  along  a  longitudinal  line,  and  consisting  mostly  of 
hardened  skin.  This  sub-kingdom  is  separated  into  two  di- 
visions, which  include  many  classes  and  orders,  and  embrace 
Beetles,  Weevils,  Bees,  Wasps,  Butterflies,  House-flies,  Fleas, 
Millipedes,  Centipedes,  Spiders,  Scorpions,  Lobsters,  Crabs, 
Worms,  Leeches.     (Figs.  25,  26.) 

51.  Mollusca  f  are  mostly  soft-bodied  animals  that  are 

Birds.    Reptiles.    Amphibians.    Fishes.    Describe  the  sub-kingdom  Annulosa.    Th« 
Mollusca. 

^  Lat.,  Annulus,  a  ring.  f  Lat.,  Mollis,  soft. 


34 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE. 


Fig.  29. 


Fig.  29.  Diagram  of  a  Radiata. — The 
Star-fish.    1,  Mouth. 


usually  protected  by  an  external  skeleton  or  shell  composed 
of  the  carbonate  of  lime.  The  Mollusca  are  separated  into 
two  divisions,  each  of  which  is  divided  into  classes  and  or- 
ders, embracing  the  Nautilus,  Cuttle-fishes,  Snails,  Limpits, 
Whelks,  Mascles,  Oysters,  Scallops,   Seamats,  etc.     (Figs. 

27,  28.) 

52.   The    Radiata   embrace 

animals  whose  organization  is 
much  less  complete  than  that  of 
most  other  animals. 

58.  The  Protozoa  forms  the 
lowest  division  of  the  animal 
kingdom.  They  are  generally 
of  very  minute  size,  and  are  com- 
posed of  a  jelly-like  substance. 
Most  of  them  are  only  seen  by 
the  aid  of  the  microscope.  They  abound  in  the  air,  are 
largely  found  in  water,  and  are  popularly  called  "animal- 
culse,"  or  "  parasites."  Some  few  attain  a  large  size,  as  the 
sponge. 

Observation  1. — The  joints  and  limbs  of  domestic  animals  when  in- 
jured or  sprained  should  have  immediate  and  absolute  rest,  particularly 
with  the  noble  horse,  if  permanent  lameness  would  be  prevented.  To 
allay  inflammation,  apply  warm  and  even  hot  water,  attended  with 
rubbing  or  friction.  If  hot  fomentations  are  not  adequate  after  three 
weeks'  trial,  then  apply  a  blister  to  the  diseased  part. 

2. — The  varied  structure  of  the  four  lower  sub-kingdoms  of  animals 
is  replete  with  interest  and  instruction,  but  the  necessarily  limited  space 
of  this  elementary  school-book  entirely  precludes  their  consideration. 
Allow  us  to  advise  all,  who  can  command  the  leisure,  to  extend  this 
study  to  the  beautiful  and  wonderful  works  of  creation  as  seen  in  these 
parts  of  the  garden  of  the  Lord. 


The  Badiata,    The  Protozoa.    How  should  injured  joints  be  treated?    ObserratioD  2. 


THE   BONES. 


35 


Fio.  30. 


Fio.  31. 


SYNTHETIC  TOI>ICA3L.  REVIE^V. 

OSSEOUS  SYSTEM,  HUMAN  AND  COMPARATIVE. 

Classes,  SnlD-kingd.oms,  Divisions. 


State  the  Anatomy,  Physiology  and  Hygiene  of  the  Osseous  System,  Human  and  Com- 
parative, from  tableaux  drawn  on  the  blackboard  or  outline  anatomical  charts. 


CHAPTER  III. 


THE  MUSCLES. 


54.  All  the  great  motions  of  the  body  are  caused  by  the 
movement  of  some  of  the  bones  which  form  the  framework  of 
the  body ;  but  these,  independently  of  themselves,  have  not 
the  power  of  motion,  and  only  change  their  position  through 
the  action  of  other  organs  attached  to  them,  which  by  con- 
tracting or  shrinking  draw  the  bones  after  them.  In  some 
of  the  slight  movements,  as  the  winking  of  the  eye,  no  bones 
are  displaced  or  moved.  These  moving,  contracting  organs 
are  the  Mus'eles  (lean  meat). 


Fig.  33. 


Fig.  34. 


I  2  3  4 

Fig.  33. — 1,  A  Representation  of  the  Direction  and  Arrangement  of  the  Fibres  in  a 
spiudle-shaped  muscle.    2,  In  a  radiated  muscle.    3,  In  a  peniform  muscle.    4,  In  a  bi 
peniform  muscle,    t,  t.  The  tendons  of  a  muscle. 

Fig.  34.  Development  of  Muscular  Fibre  from  Cells. — a,  Simple  cell.  6,  A  pair  of 
cells  fused  together,  c,  Three  cells  fused  and  their  contents  assuming  the  striated  cha- 
racter,   d,  A  muscular  fibre  exhibiting  its  original  composition  of  cells. 

^  6.  Anatomy  of  the  Muscles. — Analysis  of  a  3fuscle.  Sheath  of 
a  Muscle.  Tendons.  Number  of  Muscles.  Classes  of  Muscles.  The 
Muscular  Current. 

65.  A  Muscle  is  separable  into  bundles  of  fibres  called  Fas- 

dculi,  each  fasciculus  into  fibres,  each  of  the  fibres  into  a  mul- 


How  are  all  the  great  motions  of  the  body  produced  ?    Of  what  are  muscles  composed ' 
36 


THE   MUSCLES. 


37 


Fig.  35. 


titiide  of  filaments  or  fibrillce  (fibrils),  and  each  filament  into 
cells  arranged  longitudinally. 

56.  Every  filament,  each  fibre,  all  the  fasciculi,  and  every 
muscle  is  surrounded  by 
a  thin,  tough  membrane 
called  Fascia  (sheath).  At 
the  extremities  of  the  mus- 
cle the  sheaths  that  cover 
the  smaller  fibres  and  the 
membranous  covering  of 
the  whole  muscle  unite 
and  form  a  firm  inelastic 
cord  or  band  called  Ten- 
don (sinew).  (Figs.  35, 36.) 

57.  In  some  muscles  the 
fibres  run  in  straight  lines, 
others  spread  like  a  fan, 
while  others  converge  to 
one  or  both  sides  of  a  ten- 
don, running  the  whole 
length  of  a  muscle,  as  the 
plume  of  a  feather.  A  few 
muscles  that  enclose  cavi- 
ties have  the  muscular  fibre  running  in  a  circular  direction. 

58.  Tendons  vary  in  shape.  Some  are  long  and  slender, 
others  are  short  and  thick,  while  some  are  thin  and  broad. 
They  serve  to  fasten  the  muscles  to  the  bones  or  to  each  other. 

Observation^ — The  different  parts  of  a  muscle,  the  tendon,  fascia  and 
bundle  of  fibres,  can  be  seen  by  examining  a  leg  of  beef. 

59.  In  general,  the  muscles  form  about  the  bones  two  lay- 
ers, called  the  superficial,  or  external  muscles,  and  the  deep- 
seatedj  or  those  nearest  the  bone.  There  are  more  than  four 
hundred  muscles  in  the  human  body.     To  these,  and  a  yellow 


Fig.  35.  A  Transverse  Section  of  the  Neck. 
— The  separate  muscles,  as  tliey  are  arranged 
in  layers,  with  their  investing  fascia.  12,  The 
trachea.  13,  The  oesophagus.  14,  Carotid  ar- 
tery and  jugular  vein.  28,  One  of  the  bones 
of  the  spinal  column.  (The  figures  in  the  white 
space  represent  fascia ;  other  figures,  muscles.) 


By  what  is  each  muscle  surrounded  ?  Describe  Tendon.  Give  the  arrangement  of  the 
fibres  in  diffei-ent  muscles.  Give  the  different  forms  of  Tendons.  Observation.  What 
names  have  been  given  to  the  layers  of  Muscles? 

4 


Sd 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


substance  called  fat,  that  surrounds  and  fills  the  spaces  in  the 
muscles,  the  child  and  youth  are  indebted  for  the  roundness 
and  beauty  of  their  limbs.  Muscles  are  classed  as  Voluntary 
or  Involuntary.     (Fig.  35.) 

60.  The  Voluntary  Muscles  are  those  that  act  when  we 
Will  or  wish  to  use  them.  They  are  striated^  or  have  beauti- 
ful parallel  wavy  lines,  which  run  around  the  fibres  in  a  cir- 
cular direction,  as  the  muscles  of  the  arm  and  foot. 

The  Involuntary  Muscles  act  independently  of  our 
wishes,  and  are  not  striated,  or  striped,  as  the  heart.     Some 

Fig.  36. 


2  4 

Fig.  3G.  Diagram  of  the  Third  Kind  op  Lever. — 1,  Hiimerns.  2,  Ulna.  3,  Biceps 
muscle.  4,  Its  attachment  to  the  nlna.  5,  Its  attachment  to  the  humerus.  6,  Triceps 
muscle.  7,  Its  tendon.  8,  The  ball  to  be  moved.  9,  10.  11,  Direction  of  the  ulna  and 
ball  when  the  biceps  (3)  muscle  contracts.  When  the  triceps  (6)  muscle  contracts,  the 
fore  arm  is  extended. 

muscles  are  both  voluntary  and  involuntary,  as  the  muscles 
used  in  breathing ;  they  act  with  regularity  when  the  atten- 
tion is  withdrawn  from  them,  but  can  be  controlled  somewhat 
by  our  wishes.  This  mixed  muscular  action  is  highly  import- 
ant to  the  elocutionist  and  to  the  singer. 

61.  The  chemical  composition  of  muscles  cannot  be  pre- 
cisely known,  because  of  the  difficulty  of  detaching  the  fibres 
from  their  membranes,  blood-vessels  and  nerves  blended  with 
them. 


What  is  the  use  of  fat  among  Muscles?  IIow  are  Muscles  classed?  Describe  Vol un- 
tarj'  Muscles.  Involuntary.  Mixed  Muscles.  What  is  said  of  the  chemical  composition 
»f  Muscles? 


THE   MUSCLES.  39 

62.  In  muscular  action  there  is  an  increased  activity  in  the 
blood-vessels  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  exercise  per- 
formed, and  also  chemical  changes  by  which  heat  is  produced. 
The  electrical  current  known  as  the  "muscular  ewTent,"  is 
probably  a  result  of  chemical  action.  In  the  entire  muscle 
its  path  lies  along  the  outside  toward  the  tendons.  The  direc- 
tion of  the  total  current  of  the  body  is  from  the  head  down- 
ward. 

Observation. — In  friction,  or  rubbing  the  body  with  the  hand,  the  di- 
rection of  the  current  should  be  followed ;  otherwise,  irritation  is  pro- 
duced rather  than  the  soothing  influence  desired.  This  direction  is  of 
special  importance  to  nurses  and  watchers  in  caring  for  the  sick,  par- 
ticularly nervous  patients.  The  eflect  of  friction  is  sometimes  improved 
by  moistening  the  inside  of  the  hand. 

I  7.  Physiology  of  the  Muscles. — Belalive  Uses  of  the  Bones  and 
Muscles.     Characteristic  Property  of  Musdes.     Uses  of  Tendons. 

63.  To  give  a  clear  idea  of  the  relative  uses  of  the  Muscles 
aiid  Bones,  we  quote  the  comparison  of  another:   "The  Bones 


Fig.  37. 


2 
Fig.  37.  Metacarpai,  and  Phala.ngeal  Bones  of  the  Fingers,  with  their  Tendons  and 
Ligaments. — 1,  Metacarpal  bone.    2,  Tendon  of  the  superficial  flexor.    3,  Tendon  of  the 
tieep  flexor  passing  through  a  perforation  (*)  of  the  superficial  flexor. 

are  to  the  body  what  the  masts  and  spars  are  to  the  ship — 
they  give  support  and  the  power  of  resistance ;  the  Muscles 
are  to  the  bones  what  ropes  are  to  the  masts  and  spars." 

64.  The  characteristic  property  of  the  muscles  is  contractil- 
ity. Each  fibre  of  the  several  muscles  receives  from  the  brain, 
through  the  nervous  filament  appropriated  to  it,  a  certain  in- 
fluence called  nervous  fluid,  or  stimulus.  It  is  this  that  in- 
duces contraction,  while  the  suspension  of  this  stimulus  causes 

Name  some  of  the  changes  attending  muscular  action.  What  is  said  of  the  muscular 
current?  Observation.  State  the  relative  uses  of  Bones  and  Muscles.  What  is  the  cha- 
racteristic property  of  Muscles  ?     What  induces  contraction  of  Muscles  ? 


40  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

relaxation  of  the  fibres.  During  contraction  the  muscle 
shortens  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  and  enlarges  in  the 
direction  of  its  thickness. 

65.  Muscles  remain  contracted  but  a  short  time ;  then  they 
relax  or  lengthen,  which  is  their  rest.  When  the  muscles 
are  in  a  state  of  contraction  they  are  full,  hard,  and  more 
prominent  than  when  relaxed.  The  muscles  passing  over  to 
straighten  a  joint  are  usually  called  Extensors,  because  they 
serve  to  extend  the  part  beyond  the  joint,  while  those  lying 
in  front  of  the  joint  are,  for  the  opposite  reason,  called  Flex- 
ors.    (Figs.  38,  39.) 

Observation. — The  alternate  contraction  and  relaxation  of  the  muscles 
may  be  shown  by  clasping  the  fore-arm  about  three  inches  below  the 
elbow,  then  open  and  shut  the  fingers  rapidly,  and  the  swelling  and 
relaxation  of  the  muscles  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  arms,  alternately 
with  each  other,  will  be  felt  corresponding  with  the  movement  of  the 
fingers.  While  the  fingers  are  bending,  the  inside  muscles  swell  and 
the  outside  ones  become  flaccid,  and  while  the  fingers  are  extending, 
the  inside  muscles  relax  and  the  outside  ones  swell.  The  alternate 
swelling  and  relaxation  of  opposing  muscles  may  be  felt  in  all  the 
movements  of  the  limbs. 

66.  Tendons  serve  to  convey  the  contractile  power  of 
muscles  to  the  bones ;  they  are  in  themselves  passive  organs, 
possessing  no  contractility.  In  them  the  evidence  of  care 
and  skillful  arrangement  is  beautifully  exhibited.  Wherever 
muscular  action  is  wanted  and  the  presence  of  muscle  would 
be  inconvenient  or  mar  the  harmony  of  proportion,  or  where 
great  strength  is  needed,  there  we  find  the  small,  dense,  con- 
ducting tendons ;  the  slits  in  the  short  tendons  of  the  second 
joint  to  allow  the  long  tendons  from  the  muscles  of  the  fore- 
arm to  pass  through  to  the  last  bones  of  the  fingers  afibrd 
the  best  conceivable  arrangement  for  compactness,  delicacy, 
beauty  and  utility.     (Fig.  37.) 


What  the  relaxation  of  muscular  fibre?     When  are  Muscles  called  Extensors?     Flex- 
era?    Observation.    State  the  oflBce  of  Tendons. 


THE   MUSCLES. 


41 


Fig.  3S. 


Fig.  39. 


Fig.  38.  A  Front  View  of  the  Sdpekficial  Muscles  of  the  Body. — 1,  The  frontal  swells 
of  the  occipito-frontalis.  2,  The  orbicularis  palpebrarum.  3,  The  levator  labii  superioria 
alteque  nasi.  4,  The  zygomaticus  major.  5,  The  zygomaticus  minor.  6,  The  masseter. 
7,  The  orbicularis  oris.  8,  The  depressor  labii  inferioris.  9,  The  latysma  myoides.  10, 
The  deltoid.  11,  The  pectoralis  major.  12,  The  latissimus  dorsi.  13,  The  serratus  major 
anticus.  14,  The  biceps  flexor  cubiti.  15,  The  triceps  extensor  cubiti.  16,  The  supi- 
nator radii  longus.  17,  The  pronator  radii  teres.  18,  The  extensor  carpi  i-adialis  longior. 
19,  The  extensor  ossis  metacarpi  pollicis.  20,  The  annular  ligament.  21,  The  palmar 
fascia.  22,  The  obliquus  externus  abdominis.  26,  The  psoas  magnus.  27,  The  abductor 
longus.    28,  The  sartorius.    29,  The  rectus  femoris.    30,  The  vastus  externus.    31,  The 


Name  the  Muscles  from  Figs.  38  and  39. 
4  ^ 


42  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

rasliis  internus.  32,  The  tendo  patellie.  33,  The  gastrocnemius.  34,  The  tibialis  anti* 
••us.    35,  The  tibia.    36,  The  tendons  of  the  extensor  communis. 

Fig.  39.  A  Back  View  of  the  Superficial  Muscles  op  the  Body. — 1,  The  temporalis. 
2,  The  occipi to  frontalis.  3,  The  complexus.  4,  The  splenius.  5,  The  masseter.  6,  The 
Bterno-cleido  mastoideus.  7,  The  trapezius.  8,  The  deltoid.  9,  The  infra  spinatus.  10, 
The  triceps  extensor.  11,  The  teres  minor.  12,  The  teres  major.  13,  The  tendinous 
portion  of  the  triceps.  14,  The  anterior  edge  of  the  triceps.  15,  The  supinator  radii 
longus.  16,  The  pronator  radii  teres.  17,  The  extensor  communis  digitorum.  18, 
The  extensor  ossis  metacarpi  pollicis.  19,  The  extensor  communis  digitorum  tendons. 
29,  The  olecranon  and  insertion  of  the  triceps.  21,  The  extensor  carpi  ulnaris.  22.  Tlie 
auricularis.  23,  The  extensor  communis.  24,  The  latissimus  dorsi.  25,  Its  tendinoua 
origin.  26,  The  obliquus  externus.  27,  The  gluteus  medius.  28.  The  gluteus  magnus. 
29,  The  biceps  flexor  cruris.  30,  ^fhe  semi-tendinosus.  31,  32,  The  gastrocnemius.  33, 
The  tendo-Achilles. 

Practical  Explanation. — The  muscle  1,  Fig.  38,  by  its  contraction,  raises  tho  eyebrows. 
Tlie  muscle  2,  Fig.  38,  closes  the  eyelids.  The  muscle  3,  Fig.  38,  elevates  the  upper  lip. 
The  muscles  t,  5,  Fig.  38,  elevate  the  angles  of  the  mouth.  The  muscles  6,  l^ig.  38,  and 
5,  Fig.  39,  bring  the  teeth  together.  The  muscle  7,  Fig.  38,  closes  the  mouth.  The  mus- 
cle 8,  Fig.  38,  depresses  the  lower  lip.  The  muscles  9,  Fig.  38,  and  6,  Fig.  39,  bend  the 
neck  forward.  The  muscles  3,  4,  Fig.  39,  elevate  the  head  and  chin.  The  muscle  22, 
Fig.  38,  bends  the  body  forward  and  draws  the  ribs  downward.  The  muscle  11,  Fig.  38, 
brings  the  shoulder  fi)rward.  The  muscle  7,  Fig.  39,  draws  the  shoulder  back.  The  mus- 
cles 10,  Fig.  38,  and  8,  Fig.  39,  elevate  the  arm.  The  muscles  11,  Fig.  38,  and  24,  Fig.  39, 
bring  the  arm  to  the  side.  The  muscle  14,  Fig.  38,  bends  the  arm  at  the  elbow.  The 
muscle  10,  Fig.  39,  extends  the  arm  at  the  elbow.  The  muscles  16, 18,  Fig.  38,  bend  the 
wrist  and  fingers.  The  muscle  19  bends  the  fingfers.  The  muscles  18,  21,  23,  Fig.  39, 
extend  the  wrist.  The  muscle  23,  Fig.  39,  extends  the  fingers.  The  muscles  26,  27,  28, 
Fig.  39,  bend  tlie  lower  limbs  on  the  body  at  the  hip.  The  muscle  28,  Fig.  38,  draws  one 
leg  over  the  other  (the  position  of  a  tailor  when  sewing).  The  muscles  27,  28,  Fig.  38, 
extend  the  lower  limbs  of  the  body  at  the  hip.  The  muscles  29,  30,  31,  Fig,  38,  extend 
the  leg  at  the  knee.  The  muscles  29,  30,  Fig.  39,  bend  the  leg  at  the  knee.  The  mus- 
cles 34,  36,  Fig.  38,  bend  the  foot  at  the  ankle  and  extend  the  toes.  The  muscles  31,  32, 
33,  Fig.  39,  extend  the  foot  at  the  ankle. 

^^  8.  Hygiene  of  the  Muscles. — An  Essential  Muscular  Law.    Im-* 
portance  of  using  Muscles  in  Pure  Air — In  Light.     Of  Exercise.     Con- 
ditions to  be  observed,  in  Muscular  Exercise.    Education  of  Muscles. 
Proper  Muscular  Tension. 

67.  The  muscles  should  he  abundantly  supplied  with  pure 
blood  is  the  first  and  essential  law.  A  pure  state  of  the  blood 
requires  that  the  digestive  apparatus  should  be  in  a  healthy 
condition  ;  that  the  vital  organs  should  have  ample  volume ; 
that  the  lungs  should  be  plentifully  supplied  with  pure  air ; 
that  the  skin  should  be  kept  warm  by  proper  clothing  and 
clean  by  bathing,  and  that  it  should  be  acted  upon  by  air 
and  sunlight. 

Give  the  practical  explanation  of  Figs.  38,  39.  What  is  essential  in  possessing  healthy 
muscles  J 


THE   MUSCLES.  43 

68.  The  muscles  sJiould  he  used  in  pure  air.  The  purer  the 
air  we  breathe,  the  longer  can  the  muscles  be  used  in  labor, 
walking  or  sitting,  without  fatigue  and  injury;  hence  the 
benefit  derived  in  thoroughly  ventilating  all  inhabited  rooms. 

Observation. — It  is  a  common  remark  that  sick  persons  will  sit  up 
longer  when  riding  in  a  carriage  than  in  an  easy  chair  in  the  room 
where  they  have  lain  sick.  In  the  one  instance  they  breathe  pure  air; 
iu  the  other,  usually,  a  confined,  impure  air. 

69.  The  muscles  should  he  exercised  in  the  light.  Light, 
particularly  that  of  the  sun,  exercises  as  great  an  influence 
on  man  as  it  does  on  plants.  Both  require  the  stimulus  of 
this  agent.  Students  should  take  their  exercise  during  the 
day  rather  than  in  the  evening,  and  the  farmer  and  the  me- 
chanic should  avoid  night  toil,  as  it  is  much  more  exhausting 
than  the  same  effort  during  daylight. 

Illustration. — Plants  that  grow  in  the  shade  are  of  lighter  color  and 
more  feeble  than  those  that  are  exposed  to  sunlight.  Persons  that 
dwell  in  dark  rooms  are  paler  and  less  vigorous  than  those  who  inhabit 
apartments  well  lighted  and  exposed  to  solar  light. 

70.  The  muscles  should  he  used  and  then  rested.  When  the 
muscles  are  exercised,  the  flow  of  blood  in  the  arteries  and 
veins  is  increased,  hence  the  muscular  fibre  increases  in  size 
and  acts  with  greater  force ;  while,  on  the  contrary,  the  mus- 
cle that  is  little  used  receives  little  nutriment  from  the  slug- 
gish blood,  and  decreases  in  size  and  power. 

Illustration. — The  muscles  of  the  blacksmith  increase  in  size  and  be- 
come firm  and  hard  ;  those  of  the  student,  if  not  used  in  gymnastics  or 
otherwise,  decrease  in  size  and  become  soft  and  less  firm. 

71.  Exercise  should  he  regular  and  frequent.  The  system 
needs  this  means  of  invigoration  as  regularly  as  it  does  new 
supplies  of  food.  It  is  no  more  correct  that  we  devote  several 
days  to  a  proper  action  of  the  muscles  and  then  spend  one 
day  inactively,  than  it  is  to  take  a  proper  amount  of  food  for 
several  days  and  then  for  a  season  withdraw  this  supply. 

72.  Every  part  of  the  muscidar  system  should  have  its  appro- 
priate share  of  exercise.     Some  employments  call  into  exercise 

Why  should  we  work  in  pure  air?    In  light?    How  does  exercise  promote  the  health 
of  muscles?    Illustration. 


44 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 


the  muscles  of  the  upper  limbs,  as  shoemakiug ;  others  the 
muscles  of  the  lower  limbs ;  while  some  the  muscles  of  both 
upper  and  lower  limbs,  with  those  of  the  trunk,  as  farming. 

Fig.  40.  Fig.  41. 


Fia.  40. — 1,  A  perpendicular  line  from  the  centre  of  the  feet  to  the  upper  extremity 
of  the  spinal  column  where  the  head  rests.  2,  2,  2,  The  spinal  column  with  its  threo 
natural  curves.  Here  the  head  and  body  are  balanced  upon  the  spinal  column  and 
joints  of  the  lower  extremities,  so  that  the  muscles  are  not  kept  in  a  state  of  tension. 
This  erect  position  of  the  body  and  head  is  always  accompanied  with  straight  lower 
limbs. 

Fig.  41. — 1,  A  perpendicular  line  from  the  centre  of  the  feet.  2,  Represents  the  un- 
natural curved  spinal  column  and  its  relative  position  to  the  perpendicular  (1).  The 
lower  limbs  are  seen  curved  at  the  knee,  and  the  body  is  stooping  forward.  While 
standing  in  this  position  the  muscles  of  the  lower  limbs  and  back  are  in  continued  teu- 
si  on,  which  exhausts  and  weakens  them. 

Those  trades  and  kinds  of  exercise  are  most  salutary  in  which 
all  the  muscles  have  their  due  proportion  of  action,  as  this 
tends  to  develop  and  strengthen  them  equally. 


What  kind  of  exercise  is  most  salutary  to  muscular  action  7 


THE   MUSCLES.  45 

73.  The  proper  time  for  exercise  should  he  observed.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  morning  is  a  better  time  for  exercise  than 
the  evening ;  the  powers  of  the  system  are  greatest  at  that 
time.  Severe  exercise  should  be  avoided  immediately  before 
or  after  a  meal ;  the  vigor  of  the  system  is  then  required  for 
the  digestive  functions.  The  same  rule  should  be  observed 
regarding  mental  toil,  as  the  powers  of  the  system  are  then 
concentrated  upon  the  brain. 

74.  The  erect  attitude  lessens  the  exhaustion  of  the  muscles. 
A  person  will  stand  longer,  walk  farther  and  do  more  work 
when  erect  than  in  a  stooping  posture,  because  the  muscles 
of  the  back,  in  stooping,  are  in  a  state  of  tension,  or  stretch- 
ing, to  keep  the  head  and  trunk  from  falling  forward.  In 
the  erect  position  the  head  and  trunk  are  nicely  balanced  and 
supported  by  the  bones  of  the  spinal  column,  and  the  muscles 
of  the  back  are  called  but  slightly  into  action. 

Observation. — The  attitude  of  children  in  standing  has  been  much 
neglected  both  by  parents  and  teachers.  Let  a  child  acquire  the  habit 
of  inclining  his  head  and  shoulders,  and  the  chest  will  become  con- 
tracted, the  muscles  of  the  back  enfeebled,  and  the  deformity  thus  ac- 
quired will  progress  to  advanced  age. 

75.  Muscles  should  he  rested  gradually  when  they  have  been 
vigorously  used.  If  a  person  has  been  making  great  muscular 
exertion,  instead  of  sitting  down  to  rest,  he  should  continue 
muscular  action  by  some  moderate  labor  or  amusement. 

Observation  1. — When  the  skin  is  covered  with  perspiration  (sweat) 
from  muscular  action,  avoid  sitting  down  "  to  cool "  in  a  current  of  air; 
rather  put  on  more  clothing  and  continue  to  exercise  moderately. 

2. — In  cases  when  severe  action  of  the  muscles  has  been  endured, 
bathing  and  rubbing  the  skin  over  the  joints  that  have  been  used  are 
of  much  importance.  This  will  prevent  soreness  of  the  muscles  and 
stijShess  of  the  joints. 

76.  A  slight  relaxation  of  the  muscles  tends  to  prevent  their 
exhaustion.  In  walking,  dancing  and  learning  to  write  there 
will  be  less  fatigue  and  the  movements  will  be  more  graceful 


state  the  proper  time  for  exercise.  Why  do  the  Muscles  require  erect  position  of  the 
body  ?  What  attention  should  be  given  to  children  and  youth  ?  Give  the  treatment  and 
illnstrations  of  Muscles  that  have  been  vigorously  used. 


46 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE. 


when  the  muscles  are  slightly  relaxed  than  when  rigidly  con- 
tracted. The  same  principle  applies  to  most  of  the  mechan- 
ical employments. 

Observation  1. — When  riding  in  cars  and  coaches  the  system  will  not 
suffer  so  severely  from  the  jar  if  the  muscles  are  slightly  relaxed. 
Wlien  riding  over  uneven  places  in  roads,  rising  slightly  upon  the  feet 
diminishes  the  shock  occasioned  by  the  sudden  motion  of  the  carriage. 
The  muscles,  under  such  circumstances,  are  to  the  body  what  elastic 
springs  are  to  a  carriage. 

2. — In  jumping  or  falling  from  a  carriage  or  any  height  the  shock  to 
the  organs  of  the  body  may  be  obviated  in  the  three  following  ways : 

Fig.  42. 


Fig.  42.  Superficial  Mdscles  of  a  Cow.— 1,  Occipito-Frontiilis.  2,  Orbicularis  Palps©- 
brarum.  3,  Masseter.  5,  Sterno-cleido-Mastoid.  6,  Trapezius.  7,  Latissinaus  Dorsi.  8, 
Pectoralis.  9, 10,  External  and  Internal  oblique  muscle.  11,  Opening  of  the  mammary 
artery  and  vein  (milk-veins).    12,  Glutei!.    13,  Rectus  Femoris  muscle. 

1st.  Let  the  muscles  be  relaxed,  not  rigid.  2d.  Let  the  limbs  be  bent  at 
the  ankle,  knee  and  hips ;  the  head  should  be  thrown  slightly  forward, 
with  the  trunk  a  little  stooping.     3d.  Fall  upon  the  toes,  not  the  heel. 

77.  Repetition  of  muscular  action  is  necessary.  To  render 
the  action  of  the  muscles  complete  and  effective  they  must  be 
called  into  action  repeatedly  and  at  proper  intervals.  This 
education  must  be  continued  until  not  only  each  muscle,  but 
every  fibre  of  the  muscle,  is  fully  under  the  control  of  the  Will. 
In  this  way  persons  become  expert  penmen,  singers,  and  skill- 
ful in  every  employment. 

Observation. — It  is  exceedingly  important  that  correct  movements  be 
insisted  upon  at  the  commencement  of  any  muscular  training,  as  it  is  very 

^  ^"  ■  ■        ■ — — -— —  ■  1 

Why  should  muscular  action  be  repeated  ?    Observation. 


THE   MUSCLES. 


47 


difficult  to  change  a  movement  which 
has  been  long  practiced.  If  a  child 
holds  his  pen  improperly  during  his 
early  lessons,  he  will  probably  never 
become  an  easy  and  elegant  writer. 

78.  The  date  of  the  mind  affects 
muscular  contraction.  A  person 
who  is  cheerful  and  happy  will 
do  more  work  and  with  less  fa- 
tigue than  one  who  is  peevish  and 
discontented. 

Illustration. — A  sportsman  will  pur- 
sue his  game  miles  without  fatigue, 
while  his  attendant,  not  having  any 
mental  stimulus,  will  become  weary. 

79.  Relaxation  must  follow  con- 
traction, or  rest  must  follow  exer- 
cise. Exercise  too  long  contin- 
ued produces  exhaustion,  and  in 
the  exercise  of  exhausted  muscle 
the  loss  of  material  exceeds  the 
deposit;  also  lon^'^-continued  ten- 
sion enfeebles,  and  at  length  de- 
stroys, the  contractile  property. 

Illustration. — The  effect  of  over- work 
may  be  seen  in  the  attenuated  frames 
of  over-tasked  domestic  animals,  as  the 
horse,  or  in  the  diminished  weight  of 
the  farmer  after  the  hurry  of  harvest- 
time.  The  effect  of  continued  tension 
is  seen  in  the  restlessness  of  children 
at  school  after  sitting  for  a  time  in  one 
position.  The  necessity  of  frequent  re- 
cesses is  founded  upon  the  organic  law 
that  relaxation  of  muscle  must  follow 
contraction.  The  younger  and  feebler 
the  pupils  the  greater  is  this  necessity. 

80.  Change  of  employment  often 


Fig.  43. 


Fig.  43.  Superficial  Muscles  op  a 
Hawk. — 1,  Occipito-Frontalis.  2,  Or- 
bicularis Palpaebrarum.  3,  Temporal. 
4,  Masseter.  5,  Sterno-cleido-Mas- 
toid.  6,  Trapezius.  7,  Latissimua 
Dorsi.  8,  Pectoralis.  9,  Deltoid.  10, 
Biceps.  11,  Triceps.  12,  Gluteii.  13, 
Levator  Caudae.  14,  Rectus  Femoris. 
15,  Gastrocnemius  muscle. 

affords  the  required  rest,  as 


State  the  effect  of  the  mind  on  muscular  contraction.    The  relation  tetween  relaxa- 
tion and  contraction  c  f  muscles.    lUustratiou.    What  effect  has  change  cf  employment? 


48 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 


it  brings  into  action  a  new  set  of  muscles ;  hence,  the  person 
of  sedentary  occupation  is  rested  by  general  muscular  exer- 
cise, while  the  person  of  active  occupation  is  rested  by  that 
of  a  sedentary  character. 

Illustration. — The  needlewoman  exhausts  the  muscles  of  the  back  and 
arm ;  a  brisk  walk  or  some  active  household  employment  affords  rest.  ^ 

§  9.  Comparative  Myq-logy.— Compare  Muscles  of  other  Mammals 
with  those  of  Man.     Muscles  of  Birds— Of  Reptiles— Of  Fishes. 

81.  In  all  Mammals  the  Muscles  in  their  general  plan  re- 
semble those  of  Man,  the  modifications  in  number,  form,  po- 

'  Fig.  44. 


Fig.  44.  Muscles  of  the  Fish. — a,  b,  c,  and  1,  2,  3,  The  zigzag  arrangement  of  the  flakes. 

sition  and  relative  size  being  only  such  as  adapt  them  to  the 
habits  and  necessities  of  the  particular  species.  The  color 
of  the  muscle  is  deepest  in  the  Carnivora  (flesh-eaters),  and 
palest  in  the  Rodentia  (gnawers). 

82.  In  Birds  the  muscular  system  is  remarkable  for  the 
distinctness  and  density  of  their  fibres,  for  the  deep-red  color 
of  those  employed  in  vigorous  action  and  their  marked  line 
of  attachment  to  their  tendons,  which  are  of  a  pearly- white 
color  and  have  a  peculiar  tendency  to  become  bone. 


What  is  Baid  of  the  muscles  of  Mammals?    Of  their  color ?    For  what  is  the  muecular 
system  of  Birds  remarkable  ? 


THE   MUSCLES.  49 

83.  In  Reptiles  the  muscles  are  pale  in  color,  and  the  fibres 
are  tenacious  of  their  contractility ;  the  energy  of  their  con- 
traction in  some  instances  and  on  some  occasions  is  great,  but 
it  cannot  be  continuously  exercised.  The  muscles  of  the 
trunk  reach  the  highest  development  in  Serpents  and  the 
lowest  in  the  Tortoise. 

84.  In  Fishes  the  muscular  tissue  is  usually  colorless; 
sometimes  it  is  opaline  or  yellowish,  but  it  is  white  when 
boiled.  The  chief  masses  of  the  muscular  system  are  dis- 
posed on  each  side  of  the  trunk  in  a  series  of  plates  or  flakes 
corresponding  in  number  to  the  vertebrae.  Each  flake  is 
arranged  in  a  zigzag  manner. 

Observation  1. — In  a  very  large  portion  of  the  four  lower  sub-king- 
doms of  animals  (composing  the  Invertebrates)  the  muscles  are  so  mi- 
nute that  they  cannot  be  so  well  demonstrated,  yet  it  is  probably  true 
that  in  structure  and  in  varied  use  they  may  be  as  complete  and  won- 
derful as  those  of  the  Vertebrates. 

2. — Among  all  domestic  animals,  as  the  horse,  ox  and  fowl,  the  same 
hygienic  laws  relative  to  protection,  food,  air,  light  and  exercise  are 
equally  applicable  as  to  man. 

Speak  of  the  muscles  of  Reptiles.    Speak  of  the  muscles  in  Fishes.    What  is  said  of  the 
D'lnuteness  of  the  muscles  in  some  animals?     What  of  the  application  of  hygienic  laws? 


SYNTHETIC   TOFIC^L  RE3VIETV. 

MUSCULAR  SYSTEM,  HUMAN  AND  COMPARATIVE. 

Classes,  Sub-kin gdoms,  DiArisions,  A-natomy,  P»h.3rsi- 

olo^y  aix<i  Hygieiae. 

6  G 


50 


ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 

Fig.  45. 


ANNULSn 
LrcAMENT 


State  tlie  Anatomy,  the  Physiology,  the  Hygiene  of  the  Muscular  System,  Human  and 
Comparative,  from  Tableaux  drawn  on  blackboard  or  from  outline  Anatomical  charts. 


DIVISION  II. 

THE   NUTEITIYE  APPAKATUS. 

85.  In  the  building  up  and  repairing  of  the  system,  from 
the  earliest  period  of  embryo  life  to  the  last  moment  of  earthly 
existence,  certain  organs  are  used,  which  together  may  be 
temed  the  Nutritive  Apparatus,  including  the  Digestive, 
the  Absorptive,  the  Respiratory,  the  Circulatory,  and  the  Assim- 
ilatory  organs. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  DIGESTIVE   ORGANS. 


86.  The  food,  whether  animal  or  vegetable,  has  no  resem- 
blance to  the  bones,  muscles  and  other  parts  of  the  body  to 
which  it  gives  sustenance.  It  must  undergo  certain  essential 
alterations  before  it  can  become  a  part  of  the  different  struc- 
tures of  the  body.  The  first  change  is  effected  by  the  action 
of  the  Digestive  Organs. 

§  10.  Anatomy  of  the  Digestive  Organs. — Anatomy  of  the  Mouth 
— Tfie  Teeth — The  Salivary  Glands — The  Pharynx — The  CEsophagm 
— The  Stomach — The  Intestines — The  Liver — The  Pancreas — The 
Spleen. 

87.  The  Digestive  Organs  include  the  Mouth,  Teeth, 
Sal'ivary  Glands,  Palate,  Pharynx,  (Esoph'agus,  Stomach,  In- 
testines, Liver,  Pan'creas  and  Spleen. 

The  Mouth  is  the  space  bounded  by  the  lips  in  front,  the 
soft  palate  behind,  the  hard  palate  above  and  the  floor  below, 
upon  which  rests  the  tongue.     (Fig.  46.) 

The  Temth  are  attached  to  the  upper  and  the  lower  jaw- 
bone by  means  of  bony  sockets,  called  alve'olar  processes. 

Name  the  organs  of  the  Nutritive  Apparatus.  In  what  organs  is  the  first  change  of 
food  effected  to  make  blood,  hone  and  muscle?  Enumerate  the  Digestive  Organs.  De- 
•cribe  the  Mouth.    What  is  said  of  the  Teeth? 

51 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


Fig.  46. 


The  attachment  is  strengthened  by  the  fibrous,  fleshy  struc- 
ture of  the  gums.  Each  tooth  has  two  parts,  the  crown  and 
the  root  The  crown  is  that  part  which  protrudes  from  the 
jaw-bone  and  gum,  and  is  covered  by  the  enamel ;  the  root  or 
fang  is  that  part  contained  in  the  socket  of  the  jaw,  and  the 
slightly-constricted  portion  clasped  by  the  gums  is  the  neck. 

Observation. — The  first  set  of 
teeth  appearing  in  infancy  it? 
called  temporary,  or  the  milk 
teeth.  They  are  twenty  in  num- 
ber, ten  in  each  jaw.  Between 
six  and  fourteen  years  of  age 
they  are  replaced  by  the  second 
set,  called  permanent  teeth,  num- 
bering thirty-two,  sixteen  in  each 
jaw.  The  four  front  teeth  in 
each  jaw  are  called  Incisors  (cut- 
ting teeth).  The  next  tooth  on 
each  side  the  Cuspid  (eye-tooth 
in  the  upper  jaw  and  stomacli- 
tooth  in  the  lower),  the  next  two. 
Bi-cuspids  (small  grinders),  the 
next  two  Molars  (grinders),  sit- 
uated behind  the  other  teeth. 
The  last  molars  are  the  dens 
sapienticB  or  "wisdom  teeth,"  smaller  than  their  fellows,  late  in  their 
development  and  early  in  their  decay.  The  incisors,  cuspids  and  bi- 
cuspids have  each  but  one  root;  the  molars  of  the  upper  jaw  have 
three  roots,  those  of  the  lower  jaw  two  roots.     (Fig.  47.) 

88.  Glands  are  either  small  sacs  with  openings  more  or 
less  contracted,  or  minute  tubes.  Glands  receive  both  blood- 
vessels and  nerves.  The  Salivary  Glands  (glands  of  the 
mouth)  consist  of  three  pairs,  the  Parot'id,^  the  Suhmax'ilr 
laryf  and  the  Subling'ual.X 


Fio.  4G.  The  Mouth  and  Neck  Laid  Open. — 
I,  'Die  teeth.  3,  4,  Upper  and  lower  jaws.  5, 
The  tongue.  7,  Parotid  gland.  8,  Sublingual 
gland.  9,  Trachea  (wind-pipe).  50,  11,  CEso- 
phagus  (gullet).  12,  Spinal  column.  13,  Spi- 
nal cord. 


Give  the  parts  of  each  tooth.  What  are  the  temporary  teeth?  The  permanent? 
Name  and  describe  the  different  forms  of  the  teeth.  Define  Glands.  What  do  they 
receive?     Name  the  glands  of  the  mouth, 

*  Gr.,  para,  near,  and  ous,  ear.         f  Lat.,  sub,  under,  maxilla,  jaw-bone. 
X  Lat.,  sub,  under,  and  lingua,  the  tongue. 


THE   DIGESTIVE   ORGANS. 


53 


The  Parotid  Gdand,  the  largest,  is  situated  in  front  of 
the  external  ear  and  behind  the  angle  of  the  jaw. 

The  Submaxillary  Gland  is  situated  within  the  lower 
jaw  anterior  to  its  angle. 

The  Sublingual  Gland  is  elongated  and  flattened,  and 
situated  beneath  the  floor  of  the  mouth.  Ducts  from  these 
glands  open  into  the  mouth.     (Figs.  46,  48.) 

Observation. — The  "mumps"  is  a  disease  of  the  parotid  gland,  and 
the  swelling  under  the  tongue  called  the  "frog"  a  disease  of  the  sub- 
lingual gland. 

Fig.  47. 


Fig,  47  IIepresents  the  Adult  Teeth, — 1, 2,  The  Cutting  teeth  (incisors).  3,  Eye-tooth 
(cuspid).  4,  5,  Small  grinders  (bi-cuspids),  6, 7,  8,  Grinders  (molars).  9,  9,  Neck  of  the 
tooth. 


89.  The  Pharynx  (throat)  is  the  funnel-like  cavity  im- 
mediately following  the  mouth.  It  receives  food  from  the 
mouth,  and  the  air  in  breathing  passes  by  the  same  passage 
when  the  nostrils  are  closed.  Several  passages  lead  from 
this  cavity.     (Fig.  48.) 

90.  The  CEsoPHAGUs  (food  passage)  is  a  large  membranous 
tube,  extending  from  the  pharynx  to  the  stomach.     It  lies 


Describe  each  pair  of  glands.    Give  observation.    Describe  the  Pharynx.     What  is  th« 
(Esophagus  ? 

5«- 


54 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


Fig.  48. 


y 


behind  the  trachea  (wind-pipe),  the  heart  and  the  lungs,  and 
passes  through  the  diaphragm  or  floor  to  the  chest.    (Fig.  46.) 

91.  The  Stomach  is  pear- 
shaped.  When  moderately  filled 
it  is  about  nine  inches  in  length 
by  three  inches  in  diameter.  It 
has  two  openings;  one,  connected 
with  the  oesophagus,  called  the 
cardiae"^  orifice ;  the  other,  con- 
nected with  the  upper  portion 
of  the  small  intestine,  called 
the  pylor'icf  orifice.     (Fig.  51.) 

92.  The  Intestines  are  di- 
vided into  the  Small  and  the 
Large  intestines.  The  small  in- 
testine is  about  twenty-five  feet 
in  length,  and  divided  into  three 
parts,  the  Duode'num,  the  Jejv!- 
num  and  the  IHeum. 

The  Duodenum  is  so  called  because  its  length  is  about 
twelve  fingers'  breadth,  or  ten  inches. 

Jejunum  signifies /as^m^,  the  food  passing  quickly  through 
this  portion,  leaving  it  empty. 

Ileum,  twisted,  is  so  named  from  its  numerous  coils. 

93.  The  Large  Intestine,  about  five  feet  in  length,  is 
also  divided  into  three  parts,  the  Cce'cum,  the  Colon  and  the 
Rectum.     (Fig.  49.) 

The  CcECUM  is  so  called  from  its  forming  a  blind  pouch 
(shut  sac),  open  at  one  end. 

The  Colon,  because  the  food  passes  slowly  through  its 
folds,  and  the  Rectum,  from  its  straight  course. 

Attached  to  the  extremity  of  the  ccecum  is  a  worm-shaped 


Fig.  48.  A  Side  View  of  Face. — 1,  2, 
Trachea.  S,  (Esophagus.  7,  Submaxil- 
lary. 8,  Parotid  gland.  9,  Duct  from 
the  Parotid  gland.  4,  4,  4,  5,  6,  Mus- 
cles. 


What  is  said  of  the  Stomach?  Of  its  openings?  Give  the  divisions  of  the  Intestines, 
Name  and  describe  the  divisions  of  the  small  intestines.  State  the  length  and  parts  of 
the  large  intestines.    Describe  each  part. 


*  Gr.,  kardia,  heart. 


f  Gr.,  pulorus,  gatekeeper. 


THE   DIGESTIVE   ORGANS. 


55 


Fig.  49. 


tube  (appendix  vermiformis) ,  about  four  inches  long  and  the 
size  of  a  goose-quill.     Its  function  is  unknown. 

The  lower  portion  of  the  co- 
Ion  makes  a  double  curvature 
called  the sig'moid  flexure.  The 
rectum  extends  from  the  sig- 
moid flexure  to  the  terminus 
of  the  intestinal  canal,  a  distance 
of  six  or  eight  inches.  (Fig.  49. ) 

94.  The  Liver  is  the  largest 
glandular  organ  in  the  body, 
weighing  about  four  pounds. 
It  is  situated  in  the  right  side 
below  the  diaphragm.  It  is 
convex  above  and  slightly  con- 
cave below.  On  the  under  side 
of  the  liver  is  the  gall-bladder, 
or  reservoir  for  the  bile,  which 
opens  by  a  duct  into  the  small 

intestine.     (Fig.  112.) 

95.  The  Pancreas*  is  a 
long,  flattened  organ,  having 
no  fat,  and  weighing  three  or 
four  ounces.  It  is  placed  be- 
hind the  stomach.  A  duct 
from  this  organ  opens  into  the 
small  intestine  near  the  bile 
duct.     (Fig.  112.) 

96.  The  Spleen  (milt),  so 

called  because  the  ancients  supposed  it  to  be  the  seat  of  mel- 
ancholy, is  an  oblong,  flattened  organ,  situated  on  the  left 
side  in  contact  with  the  diaphragm,  stomach  and  pancreas. 
It  is  of  a  dark-bluish  color,  has  no  outlet,  and  its  use  is  not 
well  determined.     (Fig.  49.) 

Describe  the  Liver.    Describe  the  Gall-bladder.    What  is  the  shape  of  the  Pancreas? 
What  peculiarity?     What  is  said  of  the  Spleen  ? 

*  Gr.,  pan,  all,  and  kreas,  flesli. 


Fig.  49.  The  Stomach  and  Intestines. — 
1,  Stomach.  2,  Duodenum.  3,  Small 
intestine.  4,  Termination  of  the  ileuin. 
5,  Coecum.  6,  Vermiform  appendix.  7, 
Ascending  colon.  8,  Transverse  colon. 
9,  Descending  colon.  10,  Sigmoid  flexure 
of  the  colon.    11,  Rectum.    12,  Spleen. 


56 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


Fig.  50. 


97.  The  Stomach  and  Intestines  are  each  composed  of 
three  coats.  The  outor  (serous)  coat  is  smooth  and  glisten- 
ing; the  middle  (muscular)  coat  is  really  a  double  mem- 
brane, one  set  of  fibres  are  longitudinal,  the  other  circular ; 

the  interior  (mucous) 
coat  is  covered  with 
Villi  (hair-like  pro- 
jections), which  give 
it  a  velvety  appear- 
ance. From  these 
projections  the  Lac- 
teals  (or  vessels  that 
receive  the  digested 
fluids)  arise.  (See  p. 
133.)  Many  parts 
of  this  membrane  are 
doubled  upon  itself, 
forming  folds.  (Fig. 
51.) 

98.  The  Alimenta- 
ry (food)  Canal  is  lined  its  entire  length  by  mucous  membrane, 
which  is  composed  of  three  layers,  the  surface  layer  (epitheli- 
um), the  basement  membrane  and  the  cellular  (connective) 
layer.  (Fig.  3.)  In  different  parts  of  the  alimentary  canal 
the  surface  layer  varies  in  the  form  of  its  cells.  In  the  mouth 
they  are  flattened,  resembling  thin  scales ;  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  throat  the  cells  at  their  free  extremity  are  fringed  or 
Jiair-like.  During  life  these  fringed  processes  are  endowed 
with  a  power  of  moving  rapidly  backward  and  forward  in  a 
wave-like  manner,  reminding  one  of  the  movement  of  a  field 
of  grain  swept  by  a  gentle  breeze.  Currents  are  thus  pro- 
duced in  liquids,  conveying  them  from  one  part  to  another. 
In  the  stomach  and  intestines  the  cells  are  six-sided  columns. 


Fig.  50  Exhibits  the  Orifices  of  the  Gastric  Glands 
of  the  Mucous  Membrane  of  the  Stomach. 


How  many  coats  have  the  Stomach  and  Intestines  ?  Describe  the  serous  coat.  The 
muscular  cuiit.  The  ii.terlor  coat.  By  what  is  the  alimentary  canal  lined?  Of  what  is 
this  membrane  composed  ?  State  the  appearance  of  the  epithelial  cells  in  different  parts 
of  the  alimentary  canal. 


THE   DIGESTIVE   ORGANS. 


57 


Observation  1. — Epithelial  cells  not  only  exist  in  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  alimentary  canal,  but  in  the  bronchial  membrane  of  the 
lungs,  in  serous  and  synovial  membranes,  in  the  skin,  the  ducts  of  all 
glands,  the  ventricles  of  the  brain,  the  canal  of  the  spinal  cord,  the  ab- 
sorbents and  the  inner  coat  of  the  blood-vessels.  From  the  extent  and 
connection  of  these  cells  we  learn  the  peculiar  transfer  of  diseases  from 
one  part  of  the  body  to  another. 

2. — Diphtheria  is  a  diseased  condition  of  the  epithelial  cells  of  the 
mouth  and  throat.  Irritation  of  the  epithelium  of  the  stomach  induces 
vomiting;  a  morbid  state  of  these  cells  of  the  small  intestine  causes 
diarrha-a;  an  inflammatory  action  of  the  large  intestine  (the  rectum), 
dysentery.  In  these  diseases  it  is  always  safe  to  invite  the  Idood  to  the 
skin  by  bathing,  friction  and  extra  coverings,  to  induce  free  and  con- 
tinued perspiration. 

§  11.  Physiology  of  the  Digestive  Orgaxs. — The  Assimilation  of 
Food.  Process  by  which  Food  is  changed  into  Chyle.  Destination  of 
the  Chyle. 

99.  Food  is  necessary  to 
the  preservation  and  growth 
of  the  body,  but  it  must  first 
be  changed  into  matter  hav- 
ing the  same  charaderidics 
as  those  organs  and  tissues 
that  it  is  destined  to  nourish. 

The  change  of  both  the 
solids  and  fluids  taken  into 
the  body  as  food  into  a  milky, 
nourishing  fluid  may  be 
termed  Primary  (first)  As8i7n- 
ilation.  Tlie  change  of  the 
blood  necessary  to  meet  the 
repair  and  waste  of  the  body  may  be  termed  the  Secondaiy 
Assimilation.     (See  p.  130.) 

100.  The  CHEMICAL  or  hidden  processes  concerned  in  diges- 
tion consist  of  peculiar  changes  {reactions)  between  the  food 
and  the  various  secretions  of  the  alimentary  canal.     These 


Fig.  51.  Mucous  Membrane  from  the  Je- 
junum.— 1,  Villi  (folds  of  lining  mucous 
membrane)  in  miniature.  2, 1'ubiilar  glands: 
their  orifices.  3,  Opening  on  the  freo  sur- 
face of  the  mucous  membrane.  4,  Fibrous 
tissue.    Magnified. 


Observation.     What  change  in    food  is  necessary?     What  is  Primary  Assimilation f 
What  Secondary? 

r  * 


58 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


fluids  are — mucus  and  saliva,  secretions  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane and  glands  of  the  mouth  ;  gastric  juice,  a  secretion  of 
the  stomach ;  bile,  a  secretion  of  the  liver;  pancreatic  juice,  a 
secretion  of  the  pancreas ;  mucus  and  intestinal  juices,  secre- 
tions of  the  mucous  membrane  and  glands  of  the  intestines. 
Each  of  these  fluids  effects  a  special  change  in  the  food. 

101.  The  alimentary  canal  in  which  these  digestive  changes 
lake  place  is  like  a  long  manufacturing  establishment  with 
many  aj)artments ;  the  first  room  being  the  Mouth,  or  masti- 
cating room,  where  some  of  the  workmen  cut  the  food;  some 
grind  it ;  some  moisten  it  and  supply  the  needed  chemicals 
for  making  one  of  the  changes.     Mastication  being  completed, 

Fig.  52. 


as^l""^ 


Fig.  62,  Portion  of  the  Mucous  Membrane  from  the  Small  Intestine,  magnified, 
Bhowiug  the  villi  on  its  free  surface,  and  between  them  the  orifices  of  the  tubular  glands. 
— 1,  Portion  of  a  clustered  gland.    2,  A  solitary  gland.    3,  fibrous  tissue. 

at  the  word  of  command  the  obedient  muscles,  with  great- 
est promptness  and  efficiency,  convey  the  food  onward  to  that 
wonderftil  laboratory,  the  Stomach. 

102.  In  this  second  apartment,  the  Stomach,  the  food,  by 
the  action  of  the  muscular  coat  of  this  organ,  is  subjected  to 
a  churning  or  rotary  motion  which  brings  part  after  part  of 
the  food  in  contact  with  a  remarkable  chemical  agent,  the 
Gastric  Juice,  which  changes  it  into  a  soft  pulp  called  chyme. 

Observation. — While  digestion  is  thus  going  on,  the  openings  of  the 
gtomaeh  are  well  guarded.  A  return  of  any  part  of  the  mass  into  the 
ojsophagus  is  prevented  by  the  sphincter  muscles  near  the  cardiac 
orifice,  and  the  passage  to  the  intestine  is  closed  by  the  sjihincter  mus- 


Name  the  fluids  that  effect  a  chemical  change  in  food.    To  what  is  the  alimentary  canal 
likened?     Speak  of  the  process  of  the  digestion  of  food  in  the  Stomach.    Observation. 


THE   DIGESTIVE   ORGANS.  59 

cles  of  the  pyloric  orifice  and  a  valve  called  the  pylorus  or  "gate- 
keeper," which,  true  to  its  name,  stands  a  faithful  sentinel  till  proper 
chyme  presents  itself. 

103.  "The  CHYME  when  perfected  passes  into  the  third 
room,  the  upper  portion  of  the  small  intestine  (Duodenum). 
Here  this  greyish,  pulpy  mass  is  treated  by  other  chemical 
agents,  the  bile,  the  pancreatic  and  intestinal  juices,  by  which 
it  is  converted  into  a  whitish,  semi-fluid  substance  called 
Chyle.  By  a  wave-like  (peristaltic)  muscular  action  of  the 
intestines  the  pulp  is  forced  to  its  respective  destination. 
The  nutritive  portion  is  taken  up  by  the  Lacteal  Absorbent 
vessels,  and  the  waste  portion  (the  innutritions)  is  passed  into 
the  large  intestine  and  excreted  from  the  body. 

Observation. — The  absorbing  surface  of  the  intestines  is  greatly  in- 
creased by  the  projecting  forms  and  great  abundance  of  the  villi;  they 
hang  out  into  the  nutritious,  semi-fluid  mass  contained  in  the  cavity 
of  the  intestines  as  the  roots  of  a  tree  penetrate  the  soil,  and  imbibe 
the  liquid  portions  of  food  with  wonderful  rapidity. 

12.  Hygiene  of  the  Digestive  Organs. — Suggestions  relative  to 
the  Preservation  of  the  Teeth — To  their  Removal.  Conditions  affecting 
the  Quantity  of  Food  demanded  by  the  System — The  Quality  of  Food. 
Directions  relating  to  the  Manner  of  taking  Food.  Conditions  of  the 
System  requisite  for  the  proper  Digestion  of  Food. 

104.  For  the  preservation  of  the  Teeth  the  first  requisite  is 
to  keep  them  clean.  After  meals  they  should  be  cleansed  to 
prevent  the  collection  of  tartar  and  to  remove  any  remaining 
particles  of  food. 

105.  The  removal  of  the  Teeth.  The  temporary  teeth  should 
be  removed  at  once  when  loose,  and  often  before,  when  the 
permanent  teeth  appear.  This  is  essential  to  the  regularity 
and  beauty  of  the  second  set. 

Observation  1. — Irregular  or  crowded  permanent  teeth  generally  re- 
cj^uire  the  removal  of  one  or  more.  By  pressure  upon  each  other  the 
enamel  is  injured  and  the  appearance  rendered  unsightly. 

What  changes  iu  the  food  occur  in  the  Small  Intestine?  What  becomes  of  the  nutri- 
tive portion  of  the  food  ?  The  innutritions  ?  How  is  the  absorbing  surface  of  the  intes- 
tine increased?  Name  the  first  requisite  for  the  preservation  of  tlie  Teeth.  Wlieu 
should  the  temporary  teeth  be  removed  ?  What  do  the  irregular  permanent  teeth  gei* 
erally  require  ? 


60  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

2. — Toothache  does  not  always  indicate  the  necessity  of  extraction, 
as  the  nerve  or  investing  membrane  may  be  diseased  and  the  tooth 
sound.  When  the  removal  of  a  tooth  is  necessary,  apply  to  some  skill- 
ful operator ;  something  more  is  needed  than  strong  muscles  and  a  pair 
of  forceps.  Skill  is  as  requisite  in  the  proper  extraction  of  a  tooth  as 
in  the  amputation  of  a  limb. 

106.  The  health  of  the  Digestive  Organs  in  general  re- 
quires the  observance  of  certain  conditions  relative  to  their 
natural  stimulus,  Food.  These  will  be  considered  under  the 
following  heads :  1.  The  Quantity  of  Food.  2.  The  Quality 
of  Food.  3.  The  Manner  of  taking  Food.  4.  The  Proper 
Conditions  of  the  System  for  receiving  Food. 

107.  The  Quantity  of  Food  necessary  to  the  system  va- 
ries, being  affected  by  age,  occupation,  temperament,  habits, 
temperature,  amount  of  clothing,  health  and  mental  state. 

108.  The  supply  must  equal  the  waste  of  the  system.  In  every 
department  of  nature  waste  attends  action.  The  greater  the 
amount  of  exercise  the  more  rapidly  will  the  particles  be 
worn  out  and  removed  and  their  places  need  supplying  with 

new  atoms. 

Observation  1. — During  the  period  of  growth  the  supply  must  exceed 
the  waste  for  the  building  of  new  tissues.  This  accounts  for  the  keen 
appetite  and  vigorous  digestion  in  childhood.  The  same  is  true  when 
persons  have  become  emaciated  from  famine  or  disease. 

2. — When  exercise  is  lessened,  the  quantity  of  food  should  be  propor- 
tionally diminished,  otherwise  the  tone  of  the  digestive  organs  will  be 
impaired  and  the  health  of  the  system  enfeebled.  This  is  especially 
applicable  to  students  who  have  been  accustomed  to  laborious  employ- 
ments. 

109.  More  food  is  required  in  winter  than  in  summer ;  hence 
by  diminishing  the  amount  of  food  as  the  warm  season  ap- 
proaches, the  tone  of  the  stomach  and  vigor  of  the  body  will 
be  better  maintained,  thus  lessening  the  liability  to  "  summer 
complaint." 

Ohservation. — The  amount  of  food  should  be  adapted  to  the  present 
condition  of  the  digestive  organs.     Imperfectly  digested  food  irritatea 

Observation  2.  What  is  required  for  the  health  of  the  Digestive  Organs?  What  is 
eaid  of  the  quantity  of  food  ?  What  must  the  supply  equal  ?  When  must  supply  exceed 
waste?  When  should  the  quantity  of  food  be  diminished?  Is  more  or  less  food  re- 
quired in  winter  than  in  summer?    To  what  should  the  amount  be  adapted? 


THE   DIGESTIVE   OliGANS.  61 

the  mucous  membrane  of  the  intestines  and  enfeebles  the  system  instead 
of  invigorating  it.  In  sickness  the  attending  physician  is  the  person  to 
decide  respecting  the  proper  amount,  as  diseased  tissues  suffer  from 
undue  action. 

110.  The  Quality  of  Food  sJiould  be  both  nutritive  and 
digestible.  Substances  are  nutritious  in  proportion  to  their 
capacity  to  yield  the  elements  of  chyle.  Substances  are 
digestible  in  proportion  to  the  facility  with  which  they  are 
acted  upon  by  the  digestive  fluids.  Articles  highly  nutritive 
in  themselves,  but  difficult  of  digestion,  often  yield  less  nour- 
ishment than  those  poorer  in  nutritive  quality  but  easy  of 
digestion. 

Observation. — If  we  confine  our  diet  to  easily  digested  articles,  the 
digestive  organs  will  be  weakened  from  want  of  proper  exercise ;  if  too 
highly  concentrated  diet,  they  will  be  injured  by  over-work;  hence  the 
necessity  of  choosing,  in  this  respect,  the  "  happy  medium."  Variety 
in  food  is  as  essential  in  the  domestic  animals  as  in  man. 

111.  Food  should  be  properly  cooked.     However  nutritious 

an  article  of  food  may  be,  if  not  well  cooked  it  is  not  only 

unsavory  to  the  palate  but  hurtful  to  the  digestive  organs. 

Observation. — The  simplest  methods  of  preparation  by  cooking  are 
the  best.  Meat  should  be  broiled,  roasted  or  made  into  soup.  The 
cooking  of  vegetables  should  be  thorough  and  complete. 

112.  The  Quality  of  Food  should  be  adapted  to  the  season  and 
climate.  Highly  stimulating  food  may  be  used  almost  with 
impunity  during  the  cold  season  of  a  cold  climate,  but  in  the 
warm  season  and  in  a  warm  climate  it  is  very  injurious.  An- 
imal food,  being  more  stimulating  than  vegetable,  is  there- 
fore well  adapted  to  winter,  and  vegetable  to  spring  and 
summer.  Where  the  digestive  organs  are  weakened  or  dis- 
eased, it  is  very  important  that  a  nutritious  vegetable  diet  be 
adopted  as  the  warm  season  approaches. 

Observation. — Vegetable  diet  is  most  suitable  for  children.  The  or- 
gans of  a  child  are  more  sensitive  and  excitable  than  those  of  an  adult ; 
hence,  stimulants  of  every  kind  should  be  strictly  avoided,  and  the  food 

What  should  be  the  quality  of  food?     Distinguish  between  nutritious  and  digestible 
substances.     Observation.     How  should  food  be  cooked?     To  what  should  the  quality 
oe  adapted  ?     What  is  said  of  vegetable  diet  ? 
6 


62  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

mainly  of  a  vegetable  character.     In  this  "fast  age"  this  is  a  suggestion 
of  vast  importance. 

113.  The  Manner  of  taking  Food  exercises  a  control- 
ling influence  upon  the  health  of  the  digestive  organs.  It  is 
essential  that  the  food  he  properly  masticated  to  secure  the 
fine  division  necessary  to  the  proper  action  of  the  gastric 
juice  and  other  fluids,  and  especially  to  mix  the  food  with 
the  requisite  amount  of  saliva. 

Observation. — Bapid  eating  should  be  avoided,  not  only  as  a  violation 
of  good  table  manners,  but  as  a  violation  of  the  laws  of  our  physical 
nature,  whose  penalty,  in  the  form  of  dyspepsia  with  its  numerous  train 
of  evils,  will  sooner  or  later  be  visited  upon  the  transgressor. 

Drink  should  not  he  taken  in  excess  with  the  food.  Nature 
supplies  the  appropriate  moisture,  and  if  tea,  cofiee  or  any- 
other  fluid  be  used  as  a  substitute,  indigestion  may  follow 
from  the  absence  of  the  necessary  amount  of  saliva.  Again, 
drinks  taken  into  the  stomach  must  be  absorbed  before  the 
digestion  of  other  articles  is  commenced. 

114.  The  temperature  of  food  and  drink  should  he  observed. 
Hot  food  or  drink  for  a  short  time  unduly  stimulates  the 
vessels  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  gums,  mouth  and 
stomach ;  then  reaction  follows,  bringing  loss  of  tone  and 
debility  of  these  parts.  This  practice  is  a  fruitful  cause  of 
spongy  gums,  decayed  teeth,  sore  mouth  and  indigestion. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  food  or  drink  be  taken  too  cold,  or 
iced,  an  undue  amount  of  heat  is  abstracted  from  the  stom- 
ach ;  this  arrests  the  digestive  process,  and  thus  deranges  the 

system. 

Observation. — The  temperature  of  the  stomach  during  digestion  is 
from  98°  to  101°.  When  iced  food  or  drinks  are  taken,  digestion  does 
not  commence  or  continue  until  they  are  warmed  to  98°  or  removed 
from  the  stomach. 

115.  The  food  should  he  taken  at  regular  and  suitable  periods. 
The  interval  between  the  meals  should  be  regulated  by  the 
character  of  the  food,  and  the  age,  health,  exercise  and  habits 

What  is  said  of  the  manner  of  taking  food?  Why  should  food  be  properly  masti- 
cated? Why  not  take  drink  in  excess  with  food?  Why  should  regard  be  had  to  the 
tempeiature  of  food  and  drink?     Observation.     How  and  when  should  food  be  taken? 


THE   DIGESTIVE   OKGANS.  63 

of  the  individual.  In  the  young,  the  active  and  the  vigor- 
ous, food  is  more  rapidly  digested  than  in  the  aged,  the  indo- 
lent and  the  feeble ;  consequently,  it  should  be  taken  more 
frequently  by  the  former  class  than  by  the  latter. 

116.  The  Conditions  of  the  System  for  receiving 
Food  are  important  in  digestion. 

Food  should  not  be  taken  immediately  before  or  after  severe 
exercise  of  body  or  mind.  The  functional  exercise  of  any 
organ  takes  the  fluids  from  other  parts  of  the  body,  thus 
weakening  those  parts  for  the  time.  Severe  exercise  of  the 
muscle  concentrates  the  forces  in  the  muscle;  severe  exercise 
of  the  brain  concentrates  the  forces  of  the  brain ;  the  same  is 
true  of  the  vocal  and  other  organs.  After  severe  exercise, 
from  thirty  to  forty  minutes  should  be  allowed  before  eating, 
for  restoring  equilibrium  to  the  system. 

Observation  1. — The  student,  farmer  or  mechanic  who  hurries  from 
his  toil  to  his  dinner  to  "save  time"  will  in  the  end  lose  more  time 
than  he  saves.  After  eating,  the  digestive  organs  need,  for  a  time,  the 
chief  use  of  the  vital  forces,  and  if  they  are  habitually  expended  else- 
where, as  in  study  or  labor,  digestion  will  be  arrested,  the  chyle  cheated 
of  its  proper  elements,  and  headache,  dullness  and  general  derangement 
will  follow. 

2. — When  horses  and  oxen  have  been  worked  hard,  water  or  food 
should  not  be  given  as  soon  as  they  are  stabled.  The  noon  meal  of  the 
worked  domestic  animal  should  be  light.  Neither  wafer  nor  food  should 
be  given  the  hard-driven  horse  until  he  is  somewhat  rested. 

117.  Persons  should  abstain  from  eating  at  least  three  hours 
before  retiring  for  sleep.  It  is  no  unusual  occurrence  for  those 
persons  who  have  eaten  heartily  immediately  before  retiring 
to  have  unpleasant  dreams,  or  to  be  aroused  from  their  un- 
quiet slumber  by  colic  pains.  In  such  instances  the  brain 
becomes  partially  dormant,  not  imparting  to  the  digestive 
organs  the  requisite  amount  of  nervous  influence ;  this  being 
deficient,  the  unchanged  food  remains  in  the  stomach,  causing 
irritation  of  this  organ. 

Observation. — A  heallhy  farmer  who  was  in   the  habit  of  eating  a 

state  the  reason  for  not  taking  food  jnst  before  or  after  exercise.  Observation.  Why 
is  it  not  best  to  eat  immediately  before  retiring  to  sleep?     Observation. 


64  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

quaiter  of  a  mince  pie  just  before  retiring  became  annoyed  with  un- 
pleasant dreams,  and  among  the  images  of  his  fancy  he  saw  that  of 
his  deceased  father.  Becoming  alarmed,  he  consulted  a  physician,  who 
advised  the  patient  to  eat  half  a  mince  pie,  assuring  him  that  then  he 
would  see  his  grandfather. 

118.  The  state  of  the  mind  exerts  an  influence  upon  the  diges- 
tive process.  This  is  clearly  shown  when  an  individual  re- 
ceives sad  intelligence.  Let  him  be  sitting  at  a  plentiful 
board  with  a  keen  appetite,  and  the  unexpected  news  destroys 
it,  because  the  excited  brain  withholds  the  stimulus ;  hence, 
all  unpleasant  themes,  labored  discussions  or  matters  of  busi- 
ness should  be  banished  from  the  table.  Light  conversation, 
enlivening  wit  and  cheerful  humor  wonderfully  promote  di- 
gestion. 

Observation  1.— Indigestion  arising  from  nervous  prostration  should 
be  treated  with  great  care.  The  food  should  be  simple,  nutritious, 
properly  cooked,  moderate  in  quantity  and  taken  at  regular  periods. 
Large  quantities  of  stimulating  or  rich  food,  frequently  taken,  serve  to 
increase  the  nervous  prostration.  Exercise  in  tlie  open  air  and  a  cheer- 
ful state  of  mind  are  very  beneficial  in  restoring  the  natural,  healthy 
action  of  the  brain,  and  thus  aiding  the  digestive  powers. 

2. — After  long  abstinence  liglit,  nourishing  food  should  be  taken,  and 
in  small  quantities.  As  in  case  of  sickness,  when  the  appetite  begins 
to  return,  the  nurse  must  use  much  discretion,  and  the  patient,  often, 
self-denial.  The  popular  adage  that  "  food  never  does  harm  where  there 
is  a  desire  for  it"  is  untrue.  Too  frequently,  when  a  patient  satisfies  his 
cravings,  it  is  to  induce  a  relapse  into  the  former  disease,  and  at  the  risk 
of  life.  The  digestive  organs  are  weak,  and  must  be  gradually  brought 
into  action.  It  is  often  better  to  give  the  food  in  a  solid  rather  than 
li:^uid  form,  so  tliat  the  salivary  and  mucous  glands  may  be  stimulated 
tc  action. 

119.  The  conditon  of  the  skin  exercises  an  important  influence 
upon  digestion.  Let  free  perspiration  be  checked,  either  from 
uncleanliness,  chills  or  any  other  cause,  and  the  functional 
action  of  the  stomach  is  diminished.  This  is  one  of  the  fruit- 
ful causes  of  "liver  and  stomach  complaints"  among  the 
filthy  and  half-clad  inhabitants  of  our  cities  and  villages. 

What  influence  does  the  state  of  the  mind  exert  upon  the  digestive  organs?  Uow 
should  indigestion  arising  from  nervous  prostration  be  treated?  After  long  abstinence, 
what  hind  of  food  ishonld  be  taken  ?     What  influence  does  the  condition  of  the  skin  exert? 


THE   DIGESTIVE   ORGANS.  65 

Attention  to  bathing  and  clothing  would  prevent  many  "sea- 
son complaints,"  especially  among  children. 

Observation. — The  useful  cow  should  be  protected  from  chilling  rains 
and  frosts.  It  is  poor  economy  to  have  the  skin  of  any  domestic  ani- 
mal chilled. 

120.  Pu7'e  air  is  necessary  to  give  a  keen  appetite  and  vigor- 
ous digestion.  The  digestive  organs  must  have  a  ])lentiful 
supply  of  pure  blood,  and  to  have  pure  blood  we  should 
breathe  pure  air.  Poor  ventilation  is  a  frequent  cause  of  in- 
digestion. Persons  who  sleep  in  ill-ventilated  rooms  have  lit- 
tle or  no  appetite  in  the  morning. 

General  Observations. — A  manufacturer  stated  before  a  committee  of 
the  British  Parliament  that  he  had  removed  an  arrangement  for  venti- 
lating his  mill,  as  he  noticed  that  his  men  ate  much  more  after  his  mill 
was  ventilated  than  before,  and  he  could  not  afford  to  have  tliem  breathe 
the  pure  air.  Compression  of  the  vital  organs  prevents  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  sufficient  supply  of  pure  air,  and  is  one  of  the  causes  of  dys- 
{)epsia,  now  so  prevalent  among  ladies. 

All  aliment  is  separated  into  nutriment  and  residuum.  The  latter 
should  be  regularly  expelled  from  the  system  ;  otherwise  headache,  diz- 
ziness and  general  uneasiness  will  ensue,  and  if  allowed  to  continue  tlie 
foundation  will  be  laid  for  a  long  period  of  suffering  and  disease.  For 
the  preservation  of  health  there  should  be  in  most  persons  a  daily 
evacuation  of  residual  matter.  Evening  is  the  best  time;  especially 
is  this  true  when  persons  are  afflicted  with  piles.  Constipation  maj 
in  many  cases  be  relieved  by  friction  over  the  abdominal  organs  and 
by  making  an  effort  to  evacuate  the  residuum  at  some  stated  period 
each  day. 

Mecapitulation. — Digestion  is  most  perfect  when  the  action  of  the 
skin  is  energetic ;  the  brain  moderately  stimulated  ;  the  blood  well  pu- 
rified ;  the  muscular  system  duly  exercised;  the  food  properly  cooked 
and  masticated,  taken  at  regular  periods,  and  adapted  in  quality  and 
quantity  to  the  present  condition  of  the  individual. 

/  "« 

y     ■, 

§  IS.  Comparative  Anatomy  (Splanchnology). — Nutritive  Appara- 
tus  of  Vertebrates.  Compare  the  Mouths  and  Teeth  of  Vertebrates— 
The  Stomach  and  Intestines  of  Vertebrates — Nutritive  Apparatus  if 
Annulosa  and  Mollusca — Of  Badiata — Of  Protozoa. 

121.  In  the  Nutritive  Appaeatus  of  all  Vertebrates  a 


ObsciTation.    Why  is  pure  air  necessary  ?    General  Observation.    Recapitulation. 
6-« 


6G 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 


general  plan  of  parts  obtains,  subject  to  the  variations  re- 
quired to  preserve  the  harmony  of  relation  between  the  or- 
ganization and  the  use  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied. 

122.  In  no  part  do  we  find  a  greater  variety  or  a  nicer 
accommodation  to  particular  wants  than  in  the  Mouths  and 
Teeth  of  different  animals.  In  Mammals  the  projecting 
jaws,  the  wide  mouth,  the  strong,  pointed,  sharp,  enameled 
edges  of  the  teeth  enable  flesh-eating  animals  to  seize  and 
hold  their  prey,  and  the  hinge-like  movement  of  the  jaw  to 
divide  it  like  a  pair  of  scissors,  as  seen  in  the  Cat  and  Lion. 
(Fig.  53.)     The  full  lips,  the  rough  tongue,  the  furrowed, 


Fig.  53. 


Fig.  54. 


Fig.  53.  The  Teeth  of  Carnivora  or  Flesh-eating  animals. 
Fig.  54.  The  Teeth  of  Insectivora  or  Insect-eating  Animals. 

cartilaginous  palate,  the  broad,  rough  surface  of  the  teeth, 
the  central  plates  of  enamel  and  the  lateral  movement  of  the 
jaw  qualify  the  herbivorous  or  grain-eating  animals  for 
grazing  and  for  grinding  their  food,  as  grain  is  crushed  be- 
tween the  upper  and  nether  millstone,  as  in  the  Sheep  and 
Horse. 

The  elongated,  tapering  muzzle,  the  cone-pointed,  enameled 
molars  locking  into  the  enameled  depressions  of  the  opposite 
jaw,  enable  the  insectivorous  animals  to  burrow  in  the  earth 
for  the  insects  and  worms  upon  wdiich  they  feed,  and  also  to 
crush  them,  as  in  the  Mole  and  Hedge-hog.     (Fig.  54.) 

What  is  said  of  the  Nutritive  Apparatus  of  Vertebrates?  Speak  of  the  mouth  and 
teetli  of  Mammals — as  the  Lion  and  Cat, — tlie  Horse  aud  Sheep, — the  Mole  and  Hedge- 
aog, — the  Rat  and  Squirrel. 


THE   DIGESTIVE   ORaANS. 


67 


The  two  chisel-shaped  incisors,  enameled  only  in  front, 
allowing  more  rapid  wear  of  the  posterior  than  the  anterior 
part,  keeping  them  always  sharp;  the  bag  of  pulp  at  the 
base  of  these  teeth,  providing  for  growth  equal  to  the  wear  at 
the  top ;  the  backward  and  forward  movement  of  the  jaws 
and  the  great  size  and  strength  of  the  lower  jaw,  adapt  the 
r>'^dentia  or  gnawers  to  their  mode  of  life,  as  in  the  Kat  and 
the  Squirrel.     (Fig.  55.) 

In  Birds  the  mouth  receives  a  new  character,  both  in  sub- 
stance and  in  form.  Instead  of  fleshy  lips  and  teeth  of  enam- 
eled bone,  we  have  the  hard  and  horny  investment  of  the 
jaws,  known  as  the  bill,  destitute  of  true  teeth.     This  organ 

Fig.  55. 


Fig.  55.  Lower  Jaw  of  a  Squirrel. — 1,  The  enamel  of  the  gnawing  tooth.    2,  Tha 
ivory.    3,  The  lateral  furrows  of  the  molar  teeth. 

varies  in  size  and  form  according  to  the  food  of  the  species, 
which  may  be  grains,  insects,  fishes  or  flesh. 

In  all  carnivorous  Reptiles  the  prey  is  sw^allowed  whole; 
hence  their  jaws  and  throats  are  made  capable  of  great  dila- 
tation. Their  teeth  are  used  only  for  seizing  and  retaining 
their  prey,  but  not  in  any  way  for  dividing  it. 

Some  species  of  Amphibians,  as  Frogs,  have  only  the  upper 
jaw  armed  with  teeth.  The  structure  of  the  tongue  of  the 
Toad  is  like  that  of  the  Frog  (attached  to  the  floor  of  the 
mouth),  but  the  jaws  are  not  furnished  with  teeth. 

The  teeth  of  Fishes  vary  much  in  form  in  different  species, 
being  sometimes  fine  and  thickly  set;  in  others  they  are 
strong  hooks  or  sharp-cutting  plates. 


Of  Birds.    Of  Reptiles.    Of  Amphibians.    Of  Fishes. 


es 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


123.  The  Stomach  and  Intestines  of  Mammals  vary  in 
size,  form  and  relative  length.  They  are  simpler,  harder 
and  shorter  in  flesh-eating  than  in  herbivorous  or  grain-eat- 
ing animals;  while  the  Ox  has  intestines  about  twenty  times 
the  length  of  his  body,  those  of  the  Lion  are  but  three  or 
four  times  its  own  length. 

Ruminants  (those  animals  that  chew  the  cud),  as  the  Sheep 
and  Ox,  have  a  stomach  with  four  cavities.  The  first  stom- 
ach, called  the  Ru'men  (Paunch)  ;   the  second,  the  Retic'u- 


Fig. 

57. 

Fig. 

56. 

Fig.  58. 

H^S^T^^H 

H 

■1 

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P^H 

HI 

^^^H-^'^«>r'«=^ 

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Ji^w^^m 

^^^^^^s, /^=^.^^^^B^^H 

^HBBr-=^=rrT— - 

^r-_=^^^iTr^ 

^^^^==^^Hn 

■H^hH-  /=AlRin« 

rK=    ^fl^HI 

I^H^Hry  — u — — ^  ^^Hp  -^M 

■■■ , 



j^*T 

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^^■^^^ta^^  :^V|IH 

■|^UI:j — r=^ 

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Irt  IHll 

Hii'lw 

I^Sl^^^B 

[^K^K— \^H| 

1^^^^ 

■■ 

EhH 

H^iH 

I^N^^I 

BhfIII 

■Hi 

m 

SHH 

H^H^Bj 

HfRl^flfis 

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Ipf'^^I 

HW^ir^l 

oSHH^H 

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1 

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M|^^H 

HMMill 

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Fig.  56.  A  Section  op  a  Molar  Tooth  op  Man. — ^1,  The  enamel.  2,  The  ivory.  3,  The 
cavity  containiug  blood-vessels.    4,  5,  Artery  and  nerve. 

Fig.  57.  Skction  of  the  Molar  Tooth  of  a  Horse. — 1,  The  enamel.  2,  Tho  ivory.  3, 
Caual  for  blood-vessels- 

Fig.  58.  Section  of  Molar  Tooth  of  a  Dog. — 1,  Tlie  enamel.  2,  The  ivory.  3,  Cavity 
for  blood-vessels.    Diagrams. 

lum  (Honeycomb) ;  the  third,  the  Oma'sum  (Many-plies) ; 
the  fourth,  the  Ah'omasum  (Kennet)  ;  the  latter,  taken  from 
the  young  calf,  is  used  in  cheese-making.     (Figs.  59,  60.) 

The  food  when  first  swallow^ed  is  received  into  the  Rumen, 
where  it  accumulates  while  the  animal  is  feeding.  Here  it  is 
moistened  by  the  fluids  secreted  by  the  walls  of  this  cavity. 
It  then  passes  into  the  Reticulum,  where  it  receives  addi- 
tional secretions  and  is  made  into  little  pellets  or  "cuds," 


Speak  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  of  Mammals.    Vertebrates.    Describe  the  stomach 
»nd  give  the  process  of  digestion  in  Rnminauts. 


THE   DIGESTIVE   ORGANS. 


69 


which,  when  the  animal  is  at  rest,  are  returned  to  the  mouth 
to  be  re-chewed  and  mixed  with  the  saliva.  This  pulp  passes 
directly  into  the  third  cavity  to  be  prepared  for  the  fourth, 
where  digestion  is  finally  completed.  It  is  then  received  by 
the  intestinal  canal. 

In  Birds  there  are  usually  three  cavities  or  stomachs ;  the 
first  is  an  expansion  of  the  oesophagus,  called  the  Crop  {Inglv!- 
vies),  where  the  food  is  macerated  and  softened ;  the  second 
is  the  true  stomach  {Proventriculus),  where  the  mucous  mem- 


FiG.  59. 


Fig.  60. 


Fig.  59.  Stomach  of  the  Sheep.— 1,  The  oesophagus.  2,  The  rumen.  3,  The  reticu- 
lum.   4,  The  omasum.    6,  Tlie  alioniiiMim  or  rennet,     ti,  Tlie  intestine. 

Fig.  60.  Stomach  of  an  Ox. — 1,  The  oesoi,hagus.  2,  The  rumen  (paunch).  3,  The  ret- 
iculum (hmcycomb).  4,  The  omasum  (many-plies).  5,  The  abomasum  (rennet).  6,  The 
intestine. 


brane  is  provided  with  mucous  cavities,  secreting  an  acid 
which  acts  still  farther  upon  the  food ;  and  the  third  is  the 
Gizzard  (Trit'iirating  cavity),  which  leads  into  the  commence- 
ment of  the  small  intestine.  The  latter,  in  grain-eating  birds, 
has  immense  strength,  being  composed  of  muscular  fibres  run- 
ning in  different  directions  and  lined  with  a  horny  membrane. 
Gravel  and  angular  stones  are  instinctively  swallowed  to  assist 


Name  and  <lew;ribe  the  stomachs  of  Birds. 


70 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


in  the  grinding  process.     In  flesh-eating  birds  the  gizzard  is 
thin  and  membranous.     The  commencement  of  the  large  in- 


FiG.  61. 


Fig.  62. 


Fw.  61.  The  Alimentary  Canal  op  a  Fowl.—!,  The  oesophagus.  2,  Ingluvies  (crop). 
8,  Proventriculus  (secretiug  stomach).  4,  Triturating  stomach  (gizzard).  6,  Intestine, 
6,  Two  csefza,. 

Fia.  62.  The  Alimentary  Canal  of  the  Flying  Lizard.— 1,  The  oesophagus.  2,  The 
stomach.    3,  3,  Sjnall  intestine.    4,  Large  intestine. 


testine  is  furnished  in  most  birds  with  two  blind  tubes  or  cseca. 
Their  exact  function  is  still  questionable.     (Fig.  61.) 


THE   DIGESTIVE   ORGANS. 


71 


Observation. — It  is  essential  to  the  Fig.  63. 

health  of  domestic  fowls,  wlien  kept 
in  enclosures,  to  supply  them  with 
gravel  or  small  pebbles  to  act  as 
teeth  in  grinding  their  food.  It  is 
poor  economy  not  to  give  hens  light, 
pure  air,  a  supply  of  pure  water  and 
feed  regularly,  with  warm  apart- 
ments. 

In  Reptiles  the  alimentary 
canal  differs  much  from  that 
of  mammals  or  birds.  As  a 
general  rule,  it  is  shorter  in 
proportion  to  the  trunk  than 
in  warm-blooded  vertebrates. 
The  passage  from  the  oeso- 
phagus to  the  stomach  is  by  a 
pouch-like  enlargement.  The 
small  intestines  usually  have  a 
few  coils;  the  large  intestines 
in  most  reptiles  are  short,  sim- 
ple and  straight,  without  csecal  appendage  at  its  beginning. 
The  liver  is  relatively  large.     (Fig.  62.) 

In  Fishes  the  alimentary  canal  is  more  diversified  in  length, 
size  and  form  than  in  reptiles.  There  are  two  predominant 
forms  of  the  stomach  in  fishes — one  like  a  bent  tube  (sipho- 
nal),  and  the  other  a  blind  tube  (csecal).  In  some  species 
of  fish  the  small  intestines  extend  in  a  line  from  the  stomach 
to  their  termination ;  in  others  there  are  found  from  two  to 
eight  coils.  The  large  intestines  are  short  and  straight,  and 
the  termination  of  the  rectum  opens  into  a  cavity  called  the 
Cloaca.  The  liver  is  usually  large,  with  numerous  append- 
ages. In  the  cod  it  is  soft  and  saturated  with  oil,  which  is 
expressed  for  medicinal  purposes.     (Figs.  63,  64.) 

124.  The  object  of  digestion  in  Invertebrates  as  well  as 
Vertebrates  is  to  separate  the  nutritious  part  of  the  aliment 


Fig.  63.  The  Alimentart  Canal  or 
THE  Sword-fish. — 1,  Liver.  2,  3,  Caecas 
or  pouches  connecting  with  small  intes- 
tines. 4,  5,  Small  intestine,  coiled.  6, 
Large  intestine.    7,  Biliary  duct. 


Observation.     Speak  of  the  digestive  organs  of  Reptiles.    What  is  said  of  the  stomach 
and  alimentary  canal  in  Fishes?     What  is  the  object  of  digestion  in  Invertebrates? 


T2 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 


from  the  innutritious  portion  of  the  residuum,  so  that  the 
former  may  be  converted  into  liquids  adapted  to  mingle  with 
the  blood. 


Fig.  64. 


Fig.  64.  The  Aumentart  Canal  of  the  Herring. — 1,  The  oesophagus.    2,  Stomach. 
8,  3,  3,  3,  Small  intestine.    4,  Caeca.    5,  Air-bladder.     7,  Pneumatic  duct. 

125.  The  Annulosa  and  Mollusca  are  furnished  with  a 
distinct  alimentary  canal  that  does  not  open  into  the  body- 
cavit}'-.  In  most  cases  the  digestive  canal  communicates  with 
the  outer  world  by  two  openings — a  mouth  and  an  excretory 
aperture.     (Fig.  6b.) 


Fig.  65. 


Fig.  66. 


Fig.  65.  Digestive  Apparatus  of  a  Beetle.— 1,  Gullet.    2,  Crop.    3,  Gizzard.    4,  Cliy- 
i  ric  stomach.    6,  Malphigian  tubes  or  caeca.    6,  Intestines  with  cloaca.     8,  Renal  vessel. 
¥iG.  66.  The  Digestive  Apparatus  of  the  Uydra  or  Fresh-water  Polyp. 


Speak  of  the  digestive  organs  in  the  Annulosa  and  Mollusca. 


THE   DIGESTIVE   ORGANS. 


73 


Fig.  67. 


Fig.  68. 


FiQ.  67.  Diagram  of  the  Organs  of  Digestion,  opened  nearly  the  v  hole  length. — ^l, 
The  upper  jaw.  2,  The  lower  jaw.  3,  The  tongue.  ^4,  The  roof  of  the  mouth.  5,  The 
oesophagus.  6,  The  trachea.  7,  The  parotid  gland.  8,  The  sublingi  el  gland.  9,  The 
stomach.  10,  10,  The  liver.  11,  The  gall  cyst.  12,  The  duct  that  crayeys  the  bile  to 
the  duodenum  (13,  13).  14,  The  pancreas.  15, 15, 15,  15,  The  small  intestine.  16,  Tht 
opening  of  the  small  intestine  into  the  large  intestine.  17, 18, 19,  20,  The  large  intestine. 
21,  The  spleen.    22,  The  upper  part  of  the  spinal  column. 

7  D 


74 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 


126.  In  the  Radiata  the  digestive  cavity  is  a  pouch  with 
a  single  opening,  into  which  the  food  is  passed  and  from 
which  the  residuum  is  ejected,  as  in  the  Hydra.    (1-Fig.  QQ.) 

127.  In  the  Protozoa  there  is  no  digestive  apparatus,  or 
only  a  rudimentary  one.  The  process  of  nutrition  is  carried 
on  in  the  simplest  possible  manner  and  with  the  simplest 
possible  apparatus.  The  only  distinct  structure  which  is  at 
all  concerned  in  nutrition  is  a  contractile  cavity  which  opens 
and  closes  at  definite  intervals. 

Fio.  69. 


Fig.  69.  The  Alimentary  Canal  of  the  Herring. — 1,  The  cesophagi>fl.    2,  Stomacft. 
3,  3,  3,  3,. Small  intestine.    4,  Casca.    5,  Air-bladder.    7,  Pneumatic  duct. 

Speak  of  the  digestiye  organs  in  the  Radiata.    In  the  Protozoa. 
State  the  Anatomy,  the  Phyeiology,  the  Hygiene,  Human  and  Compa*-ativ»-  of  the 
Digestive  Organs. 


SYNTHETIC  TOKCA^IL  REVIE^W. 

DIGESTIVE  ORGANS. 

Classes,  Sia"b-lcingd.oTns,  Divisions,  A.n.atorny,  TPixymi 

ology  and.  Hygiene. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ABSORPTION. 

128.  The  changing  of  food  into  chyle  in  the  Digestive 
Organs  is  virtually  external  to  the  animal  body.  The  process 
by  which  it  is  conveyed  within  to  enrich  the  blood,  and  also 
the  taking  up  or  removal  of  the  parts  of  living  tissues  within 
the  body,  is  called  Absorption^  and  the  vessels  conveying  it 
are  named  Absorbents. 

§  14.  Anatomy  of  the  Absorbents. — The  Absorbent  Vessels.  Dis' 
tribution  of  the  Lymphatics.  The  Thoracic  Duct.  The  Lymphatic 
Duct.    Lacteals.     Lymphatic  Glands.    Absorbent  Veins. 

129.  The  Absorbents  consist  of  certain  blood-vessels, 
especially  the  venous  capillaries  and  the  absorbents  proper, 
viz.,  Lymphatic"^  Vessels  and  Glands.  The  lymphatic  vessels 
of  the  small  intestines  are  named  Lac'teals.'\ 

130.  Most  of  the  Lymphatic  Vessels  are  long,  thread- 
like, transparent  tubes,  with  coats  exceedingly  delicate. 
They  are  distributed  through  most  of  the  system.  Few  are 
found  in  the  muscles  and  none  in  the  brain  or  spinal  cord, 
though  they  doubtless  exist  there.  They  abound  in  the  se- 
creting membranes,  especially  in  the  skin  and  the  mucous 
membrane. 

The  finer  lymphatics  unite  into  trunks,  which  either  accom- 
pany the  blood-vessels  and  form  the  deep  lymphatics,  or  run 
on  the  surface  of  organs,  forming  superficial  lymphatics. 
From  all  parts  of  the  body  these  trunks  run  toward  the  root 
of  the  neck  and  unite  in  two  main  trunks,  called  the  Thoracic 
and  Lymphatie  Ducts.     (Fig.  77.) 

131.  The  Thoracic  Duct  is  formed  by  the  uniting  of  the 
lymphatic  vessels  from  the  lower  extremities,  those  of  the  left 

What  is  Absorption  ?    Define  Absorbents.    Of  what  do  the  Absorbents  consist  ?    D» 
scribe  the  Lymphatic  Vessels.    Speak  of  the  Thoracic  Duct. 

*  Lat.,  lympha,  water.  f  Lat,,  lac,  milk. 

76 


76 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

Fig.  72. 


T:a  72.  The  Lymphatic  Vessels  and  Glands. — 1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  Lymphatic  vessels  and 
glands  of  the  lower  limbs.  7,  Lymphatic  glands.  8,  The  receptacle  of  the  thoracic 
duct.  9,  The  lymphatics  of  the  kidney.  10,  Of  the  stomach.  11,  Of  the  liver.  12,  12, 
Of  the  lungs  13, 14,  15,  The  lymphatics  and  glands  of  the  arm.  16,  17,  18,  Of  tho  face 
and  neck.     19,  20,  Large  veins.    21,  The  thoracic  duct. 


ABSORPTION. 


77 


Bide  of  the  head  and  neck  and  left  upper  limb,  also  those  of 
the  abdomen.  It  commences  behind  the  liver  and  ascends  in 
front  of  the  spinal  column.  At  the  lower  part  of  the  neck  it 
turns  downward  and  forward,  and  pours  its  contents  into  the 
vein  behind  the  left  collar-bone.  The  duct  is  equal  in  diam- 
eter to  a  goose-quill.     (Figs.  72,  76.) 

132.  The  Lymphatic 
Duct  is  about  an  inch  ^'^-  ^2*  ^'^-  ^^-  ^^«-  75- 
long.  It  is  formed  by 
the  union  of  the  lym- 
phatic vessels  of  the  right 
side  of  the  head  and 
upper  extremities,  and 
terminates  in  a  vein  in 
the  right  side  of  the 
neck.     (Fig.  72.) 

133.  The  Lacteals 
commence  in  the  inter- 
nal coat  of  the  small  in- 
testine. These  minute 
vessels  unite  and  reunite  with  each  other  and  pass  through 
small  glands  {Mes' enteric'^)  to  the  Thoracic  Duct. 

134.  The  Lymphatic  Glands  are  not  well  understood. 
They  seem  to  be  composed  of  a  large  number  of  hard,  pink- 
ish bodies,  varying  in  size  from  that  of  a  hemp  seed  to  that 
of  a  large  pea,  which  communicate  with  each  other  and  also 
with  the  lymphatic  tubes.     (Figs.  72,  75.) 

Observation. — The  lymphatic  glands  are  found  in  the  axilla  of  tlie 
arm  (arm-pit)  and  in  the  groin ;  chains  of  glands  are  found  on  each 
side  of  the  neck ;  a  few  in  the  arm ;  also  many  about  the  bronchi  or 
air-tubes  and  in  the  pelvis  or  abdomen,  those  of  the  lacteals  being 
abundant  in  the  Mes^entcry. 

135.  The  Veins  of  the  intestines  acting  as  absorbents  unite 
with  those  coming  from  the  stomach,  the  spleen  and  the  pan- 


Fm.  73.  A  SiXGLS  Lymphatic  Vessel,  much  mag- 
nified. 

Fig.  74.  The  Valves  of  a  lymphatic  trunk. 

Fig.  75.  A  Lymphatic  Gland,  with  several  vessels 
passing  through  it. 


The  Lymphatic  Duct.    The  Lacteals.    Describe  the  Lymphatic  Glands.    Where  four  d  I 
*  Gr.,  mesos,  middle,  and  enteron,  the  intestine. 


7* 


78 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


creas,  thus  forming  the  Portal  vein,  which  enters  the  liver  on 
the  under  surface.     (Fig.  112.) 


\  15,  Physiology  of  the  Absorbents. — Lymph.  Veins  as  Absorb' 
ents.  Absorbent  Power  of  different  Membranes.  The  Effect  of  Inactii>' 
ity  of  the  Absorbents.  Absorption  by  the  Skin  and  other  Membranen 
in  cases  of  Disease.     Absorption  in  the  Inferior  Animals. 

136.  We  know  little  of  the 
changes  which  take  place  in 
the  Absorbents.  Chyle  drawn 
from  the  Thoracic  Duct  is  very 
different  from  that  just  ab- 
sorbed by  the  lacteals. 

137.  The  fluid  (Lymph) 
which  circulates  through  the 
lymphatics  of  the  limbs  is 
clear  and  colorless,  and  dif- 
fers from  the  milky  chyle. 
Lymph,  like  chyle,  is  now 
considered  a  nutritive  fluid. 

Observation. — Tliere  is  much  ev- 
idence that  the  lymph  is  obtained 
from  the  blood,  and  it  is  not  im- 
probable that  the  lymphatics  take 
up  those  crude  materials  which 
were  absorbed  directly  by  the  veins 
and  subject  them  to  an  assimilating 
agency  resembling  that  acting  upon 
the  nutritive  substances  in  the  lac- 
teals. The  whole  lymphatic  sys- 
tem may  be  looked  upon  as  one 
great  assimilating  or  blood-making 
gland. 

138.  Many   if  not   all   the 
Veins    are    Absorbents.      As 
every  respiration,  every  heart- 
beat, every  muscular  movement,  every  thought,  is  produced 


Fio.  76.  Side  View  of  the  Lacteals  and 
Thoeacic  Dcct. — 1,  Small  intestine.  2,  2, 
2,  Lacteals.  3,  3,  3,  Tliorac^  duct.  4, 
Stomach.  5,  Colon.  6,  Pancreas.  7, 
r.iver.  8,  8,  Diaplirag:ni.  9,  Heart.  10, 
10,  Lungs.  11,  Large  vein  into  which  the 
thoracic  duct  opens.    12, 12,  Spinal  column. 


What  is  the  Portal  vein  ?     What  is  known  of  the  function  of  the  Absorhents?    Speak 
of  Lymph.    Observation. 


ABSORPTION.  79 

at  the  expense  of  the  life  of  some  of  the  tissues,  the  special 
office  of  the  veins  as  absorbents  seems  to  be  to  take  up  or  re- 
move the  waste  particles  no  longer  of  use  to  the  living  tissues 
and  convey  them  from  the  body. 

139.  Different  membranes  have  different  absorbent  powers, 
and  the  power  of  the  same  membrane  varies  with  change  of 
condition.  The  most  active  is  the  mucous  membrane ;  thus, 
in  the  alimentary  canal  it  takes  up  a  large  portion  of  the 
fcod  ;  in  the  lungs  it  absorbs  gases  in  a  state  of  solution.  In 
this  way  are  introduced  into  the  system  miasmatic  and  con- 
tagious exhalations.  Fine,  solid  particles  are  sometimes  ab- 
sorbed, as  arsenic. 

140.  There  are  no  visible  openings  in  the  membranes  for 

the  passage  of  these  absorbable  substances,  but  their  entrance 

seems  to  be  effected  by  a  peculiar  action  of  animal  membranes, 

which  enables  certain  fluids  to  pass  directly  through  them. 

Observation. — When  the  absorbents  of  the  abcJomen,  chest  or  head 
become  inactive,  or  fail  to  take  up  the  fluids  secreted  in  their  cav- 
ities, dropsy  occurs  in  those  parts.  When  the  quantity  of  waste  matter 
in  different  parts  of  the  body  is  greater  than  tlie  absorbents  can  remove, 
tumors  are  formed. 

141.  Though  much  impeded  by  the  external  layer  of  the 
skin,  absorption  takes  place  to  a  considerable  extent  through 
this  membrane,  and  the  use  of  medicinal  baths  is  based  on 
this  fact ;  shipwrecked  sailors,  destitute  of  fresh  water,  find 
that  thirst  is  relieved  by  immersing  the  body  in  salt  water. 
Life  is  sometimes  supported  for  a  time  by  immersing  the  pa- 
tient in  baths  of  milk  or  broth. 

9 

Observation  1. — In  serous  and  synovial  membranes  the  fluids  poured 
out  into  the  joint  in  rheumatism  and  other  inflammations  are  absorbed. 
Absorption  is  shown  by  injections  of  a  solution  of  morphia  under  the 
skin  to  relieve  suffering  from  neuralgic  pain,  from  severe  operationH, 
obstinate  cough  and  other  irritations. 

2. — In  cases  of  disease  where  no  food  is  taken  into  the  stomach  life 
is  maintained  by  the  absorption  of  fat.  In  consumption  even  the  mus- 
cles and  more  solid  parts  of  the  body  are  absorbed. 

Give  the  special  office  of  the  veins.    Speak  of  the  absorbing  power  of  different  meiii> 
branes.    How  effected  ?    How  is  dropsy  produced  ?    Tumors  formed  ? 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 


142.  Absorption  exists  in 
the  inferior  animals.  Those 
that  live  in  a  half  torpid  state 
during  winter  derive  their 
nourishment  from  the  absorp- 
tion of  the  fat  in  different 
parts  of  their  bodies.  Swell- 
ings, bruises  and  ordinary  in- 
juries of  animals  are  removed 
by  absorption,  as  in  Man. 

^  16,  Hygiene  op  the  Absorb- 
ents.— Conditions  of  Air  affect- 
ing Absorption.  Effect  of  Nutri- 
tious Food.  Effect  of  the  Re- 
moval of  the  External  Layer  of 
the  Skin. 

143.  The  air  should  he  as 
free  as  possible  from  impure 
vapors  and  gases;  hence  the 
importance  of  thorough  venti- 
lation, especially  in  the  sleep- 
ing-room, since  exhalations 
from  the  system  are  greater 
at  night  than  by  day. 

Observation. — In  infectious  dis- 
eases the  impure  air  should  be 
constantly  carried  from  the  room, 
and  the  nurse  should  approach  the 
patient  on  the  side  in  which  the 
currents  of  air  are  admitted. 

144.  Moisture  increases  the 
activity  of  the  absorbents;  hence, 
persons  living  in  marshy  dis- 
tricts contract  miasmatic  and 
contagious  diseases  more  read- 
ily than  those  living  in  a  drier 
atmosphere.     In   such   local- 


FiQ.  77.  View  of  the  Great  Lymphatic 
Tkukks.— 1.  2.  Thoracic  duct.  4,  The  rif>ht 
lyraphiitic  duct.  5,  Lymphatics  of  the  thigh. 
6,  Iliac  lymphatics.  7,  Lumbar  lymphatics. 
8,  Intercostal  lymphatics,  a,  Descending 
rava.  &,  Left  innominate  vein.  c.  Right  in- 
nominate vein,  c/,  Aorta.  (^,  Ascending  cava. 


ABSORPTION.  81 

ities  the  house  should  be*  plentifully  supplied  with  fresh  air 

and  kept  dry  by  the  use  of  fires.     Especially  is  this  necessary 

morning  and  evening  in  spring  and  autumn,  and  often  in 

summer. 

Observation. — For  the  above  reason,  the  air  of  the  sick  room  shoull 
be  kept  dry ;  otherwise  the  poisonous  exhalations  are  absorbed  by  the 
]urig8  and  skin  both  of  the  patient  and  of  the  nurse. 

145.  Nutritious  food  lessens-  the  activity  of  the  absorbents ; 
hence,  in  cases  of  infectious  diseases  due  attention  should  be 
given  to  the  food  of  the  attendants  and  of  the  family.  Some 
persons  use  alcoholic  stimulants  or  tobacco  "to  prevent  taking 
disease,"  but  these  increase  the  activity  of  the  absorbents  and 
the  liability  to  contract  disease.  A  moderate  amount  of  nu- 
tritious food  will  be  more  efficacious. 

Observation  1. — Absorption  by  the  skin  is  most  vigorous  when  the  external 
layer  is  removed  by  blistering.  Then  external  applications,  as  ointments, 
are  brought  in  immediate  contact  with  the  mouths  of  the  lymphatics 
of  the  skin,  and  by  them  rapidly  imbibed  and  circulated  through  the 
system.     The  same  results  follow  if  the  skin  is  only  punctured. 

2. — In  handling  poisons  care  should  be  taken  that  the  external  layer  of  the 
shin  be  unbroken,  as  absorption  is  very  rapid  when  it  is  removed.  In 
contagious  diseases,  if  the  skin  is  broken  it  should  be  covered  with  ad- 
hesive plaster  while  at  work  over  the  patient.  In  handling  dead  bodies 
it  is  well  to  lubricate  the  hands  with  olive-oil  or  lard.  The  absorption 
of  poisonous  matter  through  a  slight  "  scratch "  or  puncture  of  the  cuti- 
cle, as  the  removal  of  a  ^'hang-nail,"  has  cost  several  valuable  lives. 

What  should  be  the  conditiou  of  the  air  ?  Observation.  What  influence  has  moist* 
nre?  What  care  should  be  exercised  by  persons  living  in  marshy  districts?  Observa- 
tion. What  is  the  influence  of  nutritious  food  upon  absorption?  Of  alcoholic  stimo" 
lauts.  etc.  ?     When  is  absorption  by  the  skin  most  vigorous? 


SYISTTHEXIC   TOPICAL   REVIETV 

OF  THE  ABSORBENTS. 

State   tlie  J^xi-atarxxy,  the  Fbysiology,  tlie   Hygiene  o/ 

the  ^"bsorbents. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

r       THE  RESPIRATORY  AND    VOCAL    ORGANS. 

146.  In  previous  chapters,  we  have  noticed  two  stages  io 
I  ho  change  of  food  to  form  nutrient  material  and  the  transfer 
of  the  chyle  into  the  vein  which  connects  with  the  right 
chamber  of  the  heart  to  mingle  with  the  venous  blood.  The 
third  and  last  change  in  Primary  Assimilation  is  effected  by 
the  Respiratory  Organs. 

§  17,  Anatomy  of  the  Eespiratory  and  Vocal  Organs. — The 
Organs  of  the  Voice.  The  Trachea — Bronchi — hangs — Pleura.  Blood- 
vessels of  the  Lungs.     fHaphragm.     Respiratory  Muscles. 

147.  The  Respiratory  AND  Vocal  Organs  consist  of  the 
Lar'ynx,  the  Tra'chea,  the  Broneh'i,  the  Lungs  and  their  Blood- 
vessels. The  accessory  organs  are  the  Thorax,  Diaphragm  and 
Respiratory  Muscles. 

148.  The  Larynx,  the  organ  of  the  voice,  is  a  short,  car- 
tilaginous cavity,  extending  from  the  root  of  the  tongue  to 
the  trachea,  with  which  it  becomes  continuous  below.  It  is 
composed  of  five  principal  parts — the  Th^/roid,  the  Cri'coid, 
the  two  Aryte'iioid  cartilages  and  the  Epiglot'tis. 

The  Thyroid  is  the  largest  cartilage.  It  consists  of  two 
wing-like  plates,  which  meet  in  front  and  form  the  prominence 
called  Adam's  apple. 

The  Cricoid  cartilage  is  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  wide 
in  front  and  one  inch  behind. 

The  ArYjTENoid  cartilages  are  two  in  number,  small,  trian- 
gular and  curved.  They  are  placed  upon  the  summit  and 
back  part  of  the  cricoid  cartilage,  forming  articulations. 

The  Epiglottis  is  oval-shaped,  having  its  convex  or  bilg- 


Of  what  do  the  Respiratory  and  VocmI  organs  consist?  Descrihe  the  Larynx.  Of  what 
ts  it  composed?  What  is  said  of  the  Thyioid  cartilage?  Of  the  Cricoid?  Of  the  Aryte. 
noid  ?    Of  the  Epiglottis  ? 

82 


THE   RESPIRATORY   AND   VOCAL   ORGANS. 


83 


ing  surface  toward  the  mouth.     It  stands  in  a  vertical  posi 
tion  above  the  opening  of  the  larynx,  which  is  closed  by  it  in 
the  act  of  swallowing.     (Figs.  78,  79.) 

In  the  cavity  of  the  larynx  the  mucous  membrane  is  re- 
flected at  each  side,  outward  and  upward,  forming  a  pair  of 
pouches,  called  the  ventricles  of  the  larynx.  Just  below  these 
ventricles  are  the  true  vocal  cords,  extending  from  a  small 


Fig.  78. 


Fig.  79. 


Fig.  78.  A  Side  View  of  the  Cartiiages  of  the  Larynx. — *,  The  front  side  of  the  thy- 
roid cartilage.  1,  The  os  hyoides  (bone  at  the  base  of  tlie  tongue).  2,  The  ligament  that 
Gonuects  the  liyoid  bone  and  thyroid  cartilage.  3,  4,  5,  The  thyroid  cartilage.  6,  The 
cricoid  cartilage.    7,  The  trachea. 

Fig.  79.  A  Back  View  of  the  Cartilages  and  Ligaments  op  the  Larynx. — 1,  The 
posterior  face  of  the  epiglottis.  3,  3,  The  os  hyoides.  4,  4,  The  lateral  ligaments  which 
connect  the  os  hyoides  and  thyroid  cartilage.  5,  5,  The  posterior  face  of  the  thyroid  car- 
tilage. 6,  6,  The  arytenoid  cartilages.  7,  The  cricoid  cartilage.  8,  8,  The  junction  of 
the  cricoid  and  the  arytenoid  cartilages.    12,  The  first  ring  of  the  trachea. 

process  on  the  fore  part  of  each  Arytenoid  cartilage  to  the 
recessed  part  of  the  Thyroid  cartilage. 

149.  The  TRAcm:A  (windpipe)  is  a  vertical  tube  about  an 
inch  in  diameter  and  four  inches  in  length.  It  is  made  up 
of  cartilage,  muscle,  and  lined  with  mucous  membrane.  The 
Trachea  is  continuous  with  the  larynx,  and  extends  to  the 
third  dorsal  vertebra,  where  it  divides  into  two  branches  or 
tubes  called  Bronchi.     (Fig.  81.) 


What  is  the  Trachea?    What  is  the  name  of  its  two  branches? 


84 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


150.  The  Bronchi*  are  constructed  like  the  Trachea. 
These  tubes  carry  air  to  their  respective  lungs  and  again  di- 
vide, sending  a  branch  to  each  lobe.  These  divisions  are  re- 
peated again  and  again  until  each  ultimate  ramification  ter- 
minates in  a  group  of  small  cavities  called  air-cells.    (Fig.  81.) 

151.  The  Lungs,  consisting  of  two  divisions,  are  situated 
in  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  enclosing  between  them  the  heart 
and  the  great  blood-vessels.  They  accurately  fill  the  cavity, 
adapting  themselves  to  the  varying  size  attending  respiration. 


Fig.  81. 


Fio.  80. 


Fig.  80.  The  Lungs.— 3,  3,  3,  The  lobes  of  the  right  lung.  4,  4,  The  lobes  of  the  left 
lung.  5,  6,  7,  Tlie  heart.  9, 10, 11,  The  large  blood-vessels.  12,  The  trachea.  15, 15, 15, 
The  diaphragm. 

Fig.  81.  The  BRONcniiE.— 1,  Outline  of  the  right  lung.  2,  Outline  of  left  lung,  3,  4, 
Larynx  and  trachea.    5,  6,  7,  8,  Bronchial   tubes.    9,  9,  Air-cells. 

They  are  made  up  of  numerous  small  lobules  or  clusters  of 
air-cells,  which  unite  into  larger  lobules.  The  lungs  are 
closely  invested  with  a  membrane  named  pleura. 

152.  The  Pleura  is  a  serous  membrane  which  lines  the 
chest  and  then  is  reflected  from  the  root  of  each  lung  over  its 
surface. 

Observation. — The  lobules  that  cora})ose  the  lungs  seem  to  have  no 
i.'unimunication  with  each  other,  each  lobule  being  in  itself  a  miniature 

Give  the  divisions  and  subdivisions  of  the  Bronchi.  Of  how  many  divisions  do  th« 
Lungs  consist,  and  where  situated  ?     What  is  the  Pleura?    Observation. 

*  Gr.,  brogchia,  the  windpipe  or  throat. 


THE   RESPIRATORY   AND   VOCAL   ORGANS. 


85 


Fig.  82. 


lung,  performing  independent  functions.  It  has  been  calculated  that 
no  less  than  eighteen  thousand  of  these  air-cells  group  around  each 
terminal  bronchial  tube,  giving  a  sum  total  of  not  less  than  six  hundred 
millions.  The  lungs  are  everywhere  unattached,  excepting  at  the  root, 
where  they  are  firmly  secured  by  the  pulmonary  ligaments,  the  pulmo- 
nary artery,  the  pulmonary  veins  and  nerves  and  the  bronchial  tubes. 

153.  The  Blood-vessels  of  the 
Lungs  are  the  Pulmonary^  Artery ^ 
the  Pulmonary  Veins,  with  the  very 
minute  hair-like  vessels  called  Capil- 
laries,    (p.  222.) 

The  Pulmonary  Artery  arises 
from  the  right  ventricle  of  the  heart 
and  is  distributed  to  the  lungs. 

The  PuLBiONARY  Veins  are  four 
in  number,  two  for  each  lung.  They 
commence  with  the  capillaries  of  the 
lungs  and  converge  till  a  single  trunk 
is  formed  for  each  lobe,  or  three 
trunks  for  the  right  lung  and  two  for 
the  left.  The  venous  blood  is  con- 
veyed to  the  lungs  through  this  tube.  The  lungs,  like  other 
portions  of  the  body,  are  supplied  with  nutrient  blood-vessels. 

154.  The  Diaphragm  is  a  flexible  circular  partition  that 
separates  the  chest  from  the  abdomen  and  the  respiratory 
from  the  digestive  organs.  Its  margin  is  attached  to  the 
spinal  column,  the  sternum  and  cartilages  of  the  lower  ribs. 
The  lungs  rest  upon  its  upper  surface,  while  the  liver  and 
stomach  are  placed  below  it.  In  a  state  of  repose  its  upper 
surface  forms  an  arch,  the  convexity  of  which  is  toward  the 
chest,  or  thorax  (p.  19). 

155.  The  Respiratory  muscles  are  in  general  attached 
at  one  extremity  to  the  parts  about  the  shoulders,  head  and 
upper  portion  of  the  spinal  column.     From  these  they  run 


Fig.  82.  Diagram  of  two  Pri- 
mary Lobules  of  the  Lungs,  mag- 
nified.— ],  Bronchial  tube.  2,  A 
pair  of  primary  lobules  connect- 
ed by  elastic  tissue.  3, 3,  3,  In- 
ter-cellular air-passages.  4,  4,  4, 
Air-cells.  5,  Branches  of  the 
pulmonary  artery  and  vein. 


Name  the  Blood-vessels  of  tlie  Lungs.     Speak  of  the  Pulmonary  Artery.     Pulmonarv 
Veins.    Describe  the  Diaphragm.     The  Respirutur.v  Muscles. 


*  Lat.,  pulmo,  lungs. 


8 


86 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 


downward  and  forward,  and  are  attached  at  the  opposite  ex- 
tremity to  the  sternum,  clavicle  and  upper  rib.  Other  mus- 
cles are  attached  at  one  extremity  to  a  rib  above  and  by  the 
opposite  extremity  to  a  rib  below.  These  fill  the  spaces  be- 
tween the  ribs,  and  from  their  situation  are  called  intercost'al 
muscles. 

'  Fig.  83. 


Fig.  83.  Pulmonary  Circulation. — A  Diagram. — 1,  Descending  vena  cava.  2,  Ascend- 
ing cava  vein.  3,  Chamber  of  right  side  of  heart.  4,  Chamber  of  left  side  of  heart.  5, 
Aorta.  6,  Arch  of  aorta.  7,  Pulmonary  artery.  8,  Its  left  branch.  9,  Its  right  branch. 
It,  Right  pulmonary  vein.    11, 11,  Left  pulmonary  vein. 

^  18,  Physiology  of  the  Kespiratory  and  Vocal  Organs. — 
The  Function  of  Respiration.  Two  Modes  of  Respiration.  Oxygena- 
tion of  the  Blood.  Animal  Heat.  The  Amount  of  Air  in  each  Respi- 
ration. Conditions  affecting,  the  Number  of  Respirations.  Double 
Function  of  the  Larynx. 

156.  We  have  traced  the  elaborated  nutrient  material  to 
the  blood.  The  Function  of  Respiration  or  breathing  is  to 
supply  the  blood  with  oxygen  by  Inspiration,  and  to  remove 
from  the  blood  carbonic  acid  by  Expiration. 


What  is  the  function  of  Respiration? 


THE   RESPIRATORY  AND   VOCAL   ORGANS.  87 

^  157.  In  Inspiration  the  air  is  drawn  into  the  lungs  through  \ 
the  trachea,  the  muscular  margin  of  the  diaphragm  contracts, 
which  depresses  its  central  portion  ;  the  chest  is  then  enlarged, 
at  the  expense  of  the  abdomen.  At  the  same  time  that  the 
diaphragm  is  depressed,  the  ribs  are  thrust  forward  and  up- 
ward by  means  of  muscles  placed  between  and  on  them. 
Thus  the  chest  is- enlarged  in  every  direction. 

The  lungs  follow  the  variations  of  capacity  in  the  chest, 
expanding  their  air-cells  when  the  latter  is  enlarged  and  con- 
tracting when  the  chest  is  diminished.  Thus,  when  the  chest 
is  expanded,  the  lungs  follow,  and  consequently  a  vacuum  is 
produced  in  their  air-cells.  The  air  then  rushes  through  the 
mouth  and  nose  into  the  trachea  and  its  branches,  and  fills 
the  vacuum  as  fast  as  it  is  made. 

158.  In  Expiration,  after  the  expansion  of  the  chest,  the 
muscles  that  elevated  the  ribs  relax,  together  with  the  dia- 
phragm. The  elasticity  of  the  cartilages  of  the  ribs  de- 
presses them,  and  the  cavity  of  the  chest  is  diminished, 
attended  by  the  expulsion  of  a  portion  of  the  air  from  the 
lungs.  At  the  same  time,  the  muscles  that  form  the  front 
walls  of  the  abdominal  cavity  contract  and  press  the  aliment- 
ary canal,  stomach  and  liver,  upward  against  the  diaphragm  ; 
this,  being  relaxed,  yields  to  the  pressure,  rises  upward  and 
presses  upon  the  lungs,  which  retreat  before  it,  and  anothei 
portion  of  air  is  expelled  from  these  organs.  These  move- 
ments are  successive  during  life,  and  constitute  Respiration. 

Observation. — The  source  of  Oxygen  is  the  air.  It  is  everywhere  ready 
to  produce  some  new  change  in  the  materials  of  the  organic  and  inor- 
ganic worlds.  This  life-giving  principle  does  not  exist  free  in  the  at- 
mosphere, but  is  combined  with  Nitrogen,  which  is  not  a  vital  gas.  The 
sources  of  Carbonic  Acid  (a  poisonous  gas)  in  animals  are  the  blood 
and  the  tissues. 

159.  The  two  modes  of  Respiration  supply  the  blood 
with  oxygen.  The  venous  blood  coming  from  all  parts  of 
the  body  has  mingled  with   it,  the   elaborated   chyle   from 

How  is  inspiration  effected?     What  is  said  of  the  moTements  in  expiration?     State 
Ihe  sources  of  oxygen  and  carbonic  acid. 


88 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


the  lacteals,  and  the  lymph  of  the  lymphatic  vessels.  This 
dark  colored  blood  passes  from  the  right  side  of  the  heart 
through  the  Pulmonary  Artery  and  its  capillaries  in  the 
lungs.     These  minute  vessels  interlace  with  and  among  the 


Fig.  84. 


Fig.  85. 


Fig.  84.  A  Front  View  of  thb  Chest  and  Abdomen  in  Respiration. — 1, 1,  The  position 
of  the  walls  of  the  chest  in  inspiration.  2,  2,  2,  The  position  of  the  diaphragm  in  inspi- 
ration. 3,  3,  The  position  of  the  walls  of  the  chest  in  expiration.  4,  4,  4,  The  position 
of  the  diaphragm  in  expiration.  5,  5,  The  position  of  the  walls  of  the  abdomen  in  in- 
spiration.   6,  6,  The  position  of  the  abdominal  walls  in  expiration. 

Fig.  85.  A  Side  View  of  tue  Chest  and  Abdomen  in  Respiration. — ^1,  The  cavity  of 
the  chest.  2,  The  cavitj'  of  the  abdomen.  3,  The  line  of  direction  for  the  diaphragm 
when  relaxed  in  expiration.  4,  The  line  of  direction  for  the  diaphragm  when  contracted 
in  inspiration.  5,  6.  The  position  of  the  front  walls  of  the  chest  and  abdomen  in  inspi- 
ration.   7,  8,  The  position  of  the  front  walls  of  the  abdomen  and  chest  in  expiration. 

air-cells  of  the  lungs.  The  inhaled  air  in  these  cells  parts 
with  oxygen  and  receives  from  the  venous  blood  carbonic 
acid.  This  gas  with  vapor  is  expelled  from  the  lungs  through 
the  trachea  at  every  expiration.     (Figs.  84,  85.) 

Observation. — The  presence  of  carbonic  acid  and  watery  vapor  in  the 
expired  air  can  be  proved  by  the  following  experiment:  Breathe 
into  lime-water,  and  in  a  few  minutes  it  will  become  of  a  milk-white 


THE   RESPIRATORY   AND   VOCAL   ORGANS.  89 

color.     This  is  owing  to  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  breath  uniting  with 
the  lime,  forming  the  carbonate  of  lime. 

160.  The  oxygenation  of  the  blood  in  the  capillaries  of  the 
lungs  changes  its  color  from  a  dark  maroon  to  a  bright  red. 
This  purified  or  arterial  blood  is  carried  to  the  left  side  of  the 
heart  by  the  Pulmonary  Veins,  and  it  is  now  fitted  for  pro- 
duction of  heat,  motion  and  nervous  energy. 

Observation. — The  venous  blood  holds  in  solution  a  considerable 
amount  of  carbonic  acid,  a  little  nitrogen,  and  a  trace  of  oxygen.  The 
exchange  of  oxygen  and  carbonic  acid  in  the  capillaries  is  efiected 
partly  by  physical  and  partly  by  chemical  processes.  The  carbonic 
acid  exhaled  nearly  equals  the  amount  of  oxygen  absorbed ;  the  nitro- 
gen exhaled  and  absorbed  are  nearly  equal,  and  in  addition  there  is  the 
vapor  or  pulmonary  transpiration. 

161.  The  chemical  changes  in  every  part  of  the  body  caused 
by  the  union  of  oxygen  with  carbon,  hydrogen  and  other 
elements  of  the  blood  and  tissues,  maintain  the  temperature 
of  the  body,  and  are  the  source  of  its  nervous  power  and 
electricity. 

The  heat  of  the  body,  often  called  Animal  Heat,  is  the  re- 
sult of  the  various  chemical  actions.  The  temperature  of 
the  tissues  generally  ranges  from  98°  to  100°;  that  of  blood 
from  100°  to  102°.  The  blood  varies  in  temperature  in  dif- 
ferent parts,  being  warmest  in  the  hepatic  veins  of  the  liver. 

Observation  1. — The  amount  of  air  taken  in  and  given  out  in  a  re- 
spiratory movement  must  vary  with  different  individuals  and  different 
conditions  of  the  system.  The  volume  of  air  ordinarily  received  by 
the  lungs  in  a  single  inspiration  is  about  one  pint;  the  volume  expelled, 
a  little  less  than  a  pint. 

2. — Respiration  is  more  frequent  in  women  and  children  than  in  men. 
Persons  of  small  stature  breathe  more  frequently  but  less  deeply  than 
taller  people.  In  health,  the  smallest  number  of  respirations  in  a  min- 
ute by  an  adult  is  not  less  than  fourteen,  and  they  rarely  exceed  tAventy- 
five;  eighteen  maybe  considered  the  average  number.  The  number 
of  respirations  is  increased  by  exercise,  food,  stimulants  and  moderate 


State  the  exchange  of  oxygen  and  carbonic  acid  in  the  capillaries.  Give  observation. 
What  is  the  coloi-  of  the  blood  in  the  Pulmonary  veins?  For  what,  is  the  arterial  blood 
fitted?  What  ore  the  results  of  chemical  changes?  What  is  the  temperature  of  the 
tissues  and  the  blood  ?    Give  the  amount  of  air  in  respiration. 

8* 


90 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


cold,  while  it  is  diminished  by  inactivity,  moderate  heat,  starvation 
and  general  weakening  influences,  especially  mental  depression. 

162.  The  Larynx  perforins  a  double  function,  one  part 
being  concerned  with  respiration,  the  other  with  the  voice. 

In  inspiration  the  vocal  cords  separate,  allowing  the  air 
to  pass  in  freely;  in  expiration  they  relax.  The  larynx, 
however,  is  the  special  organ  of  the  voice,  sounds  being  pro- 
duced by  the  vibratory  action  of  the  vocal  cords.  During 
ordinary,  tranquil  breathing,  the  cords  are  widely  separated, 
the  glottis  being  of  triangular  shape;  but  when  a  vocal 
sound  is  to  be  produced  the  arytenoid  cartilages  are  said  to 


Fig.  87. 


Fig.  86. 


Fig.  86.  A  View  of  the  Larynx,  shovting  the  Vocal  Ligaments. — 1,  The  anteiior  edge 
of  the  larynx.  4,  The  posterior  face  of  tlie  thyroid  cartilage.  5,  5,  The  arytenoid  car- 
tilages, 6,  6,  The  vocal  ligaments.  7,  Their  origin  within  the  angle  of  the  thyroid  car- 
tilage.   9, 10,  The  glottis. 

Fig.  87. — An  Ideal  Section  of  the  Larynx. — 1,  The  trachea.  2,  2,  The  lower  vocal 
cords.    3,  3,  The  upper  vocal  cords.    4,  4,  Glottis.    5,  5,  The  ventricles  of  the  larynx. 

become  erect  and  almost  to  touch  each  other,  the  cords  are 
made  suddenly  tense,  closing  the  posterior  portion  of  the 
glottis,  while  the  anterior  two-thirds  opens  a  very  fine  fissure, 
and  the  air,  driven  by  an  unusually  forcible  expiration  through 
the  narrow  opening,  in  passing  between  the  vibrating  vocal 
cord  is  itself  thrown  into  vibrations  which  produce  the 
sound  required.     (Figs.  86,  87.) 


What  is  tte  oflace  of  the  larynx  in  respiration?    How  are  vocal  sounds  produced f 


THE   RESPIRATORY   AND   VOCAL  ORGANS.  91 

§  19.  Hygiene  of  the  Eespiratory  and  Vocal  Obgans. — Import- 
ance oj  Propel'  Respiration.  Composition  of  Pure  Air — Of  Respired 
Air.  Importance  of  Ventilation  in  Public  Rooms — In  Sleeping  Rooms — 
In  Sick  Rooms.  The  Effect  of  Compressing  the  Respiratory  Organs: 
Means  of  Enlarging  the  Chest.  The  Influence  of  the  Mind  on  Respira- 
tion. Beneficial  Effects  of  Gymnastic  and'  Calisthenic  Exerciser.  Culti- 
vation of  the  Voice. 

163.  With  minutest  care,  the  hand  Divine  has  arranged 
the  unceasing  play  of  the  movements  of  the  Respiratory 
Organs  so  that  the  air  of  the  lungs  is  changed  at  every 
breath,  giving  us  a  requisite  of  health  and  even  life — pure 
blood. 

164.  Pure  blood  can  be  obtained  only  by  a  healthy  action  of 
the  respiratory  organs,  and  this  action  only  by  a  constant  and 
sufficient  supply  of  pure  air.  Limit  this  supply,  and  the 
stimulus  furnished  to  the  nervous  and  muscular  tissues  is 
withdrawn,  and  the  carbonic  acid  is  retained  in  the  blood. 
Hence,  the  brain  works  sluggishly,  the  muscles  become  inac- 
tive, the  heart  acts  imperfectly,  the  secretions  are  impaired, 
the  food  is  not  properly  assimilated,  and  the  whole  body  be- 
comes enfeebled. 

165.  Pure  air  is  composed  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen  in  about 
the  proportion  of  21  to  79.  The  air  is  most  frequently  ren- 
dered unfit  for  vital  purposes  by  the  presence  of  carbonic 
acid  and  minute  particles  of  corrupted  decaying  animal  mat- 
ter. The  amount  of  expired  carbonic  acid  during  the  entire 
day  is  more  than  15  cubic  feet,-  or  one  pound  and  a  half. 

166.  The  quality  or  purity  of  the  air  is  affected  by  every  res- 
piration. The  quantity  of  nitrogen  is  nearly  the  same  in  the 
expired  as  in  the  inspired  air,  but  the  quantity  of  oxygen 
is  diminished,  and  that  of  carbonic  acid  is  increased.  Thus, 
every  time  we  force  air  from  the  lungs  it  becomes  unfit  to  be 
breathed  again. 

Experiment. — Sink  a  "  bell "  jar  that  has  a  stop-cock  into  a  pail  of 
water,  until  the  air  is  expelled  from  the  jar.  Fill  the  lungs  with  air, 
and  retain  it  in  the  chest  a  short  time,  and  then  breathe  into  the  jar 

Why  must  there  be  a  constant  and  sufficient  supply  of  pure  air?    What  is  the  com- 
position of  air?     Why  is  exhaled  air  unfit  to  be  breathed  again?    Experiment. 


92  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

and  instantly  close  the  stop-cock.  Close  the  opening  of  the  jar  that  is 
under  the  water  with  a  piece  of  paper  laid  on  a  plate  of  sufficient 
size  to  cover  the  opening,  raise  the  jar  from  the  water  and  invert  it, 
then  carefully  sink  into  it  a  lighted  candle  suspended  by  a  wire.  The 
flame  will  be  extinguished  as  quickly  as  if  put  in  water.  Remove  the 
carbonic  acid  by  inverting  tlie  jar,  and  place  a  lighted  candle  in  it,  and 
the  flame  will  be  as  clear  as  when  out  of  the  jar. 

Observation. — It  is  familiarly  known  that  a  taper  will  not  burn  where 
carbonic  acid  exists  in  any  considerable  quantity,  or  when  there  is  a 
marked  deficiency  of  oxygen.  From  this  originated  the  judicious 
practice  of  sinking  a  lighted  candle  into  a  well  or  pit  before  descending 
into  it.  If  the  flame  is  extinguished,  respiration  cannot  there  be  main- 
tained, and  life  would  be  sacrificed  should  a  person  venture  in  until  the 
impure  air  is  removed. 

167.  Air  in  which  lamps  will  not  hum  with  brilliancy  is 
unfitted  for  respiration.  In  crowded  rooms,  which  are  not 
ventilated,  the  air  becomes  foul,  not  only  by  a  decrease  of  oxy- 
gen and  an  increase  of  carbonic  acid,  but  by  the  waste,  inju- 
rious atoms  thrown  out  from  the  lungs  and  skin  of  the  audi- 
ence. The  burning  lamps,  under  such  circumstances,  emit 
but  a  feeble  light.  Let  the  oxygen  gas  be  more  and  more 
expended,  and  the  lamps  will  burn  more  and  more  feebly, 
until  nearly  extinguished. 

Illustrations. — 1.  The  efiects  of  breathing  the  same  air  again  and 
again  are  well  illustrated  by  an  incident  that  occurred  in  one  of  our 
colleges.  A  large  audience  had  assembled  in  an  ill-ventilated  room  to 
listen  to  a  lecture;  soon  the  lamps  burned  so  dimly  that  the  speakei 
and  audience  were  nearly  enveloped  in  darkness.  The  oppression, 
dizziness  and  faintness  experienced  by  many  of  the  audience  induced 
them  to  leave,  and  in  a  few  minutes  after,  the  lamps  were  observed  to 
rekindle,  owing  to  the  exchange  of  pure  air,  on  opening  the  door,  which 
supplied  to  them  oxygen. 

2.  The  "Black  Hole  of  Calcutta"  received  its  name  from  the  fact 
that  one  hundred  and  forty-six  Englishmen  were  shut  up  in  a  room 
eighteen  feet  square,  with  only  two  small  windows  on  the  same  side  to 
admit  air.  On  opening  this  dungeon,  ten  hours  after  their  imprison- 
ment, only  twenty-three  were  alive.  The  others  had  died  from  breath- 
ing impure  air  that  contained  animal  matter  from  their  own  bodies. 

168.  School-rooms,  churches,  concert-halls,  and  all  rooms  de- 

Obsenation.    What  remarks  as  to  the  necessity  of  ventilatiou  of  workshops,  school* 
Poms,  churches  and  concert-halls  ? 


THE    RESPIRATORY   AND   VOCAL   ORGANS.  93 

signed  for  public  purposes  and  workshops  should  he  amply  ven- 
tilated. The  child  at  school  becomes  listless  and  uninterested ; 
why?  Because  he  is  stiqDefied  by  foul  air.  When  a  pupil 
continues  to  breathe  such  air  month  after  month,  his  brain  is 
injured,  and  often  consumption  or  other  fatal  disease  destroys 
his  young  life,  and  then  we  wonder  at  the  "  mysterious  provi- 
dence" that  takes  from  us  the  gifted  and  beautiful. 

Observation. — The  good  man  at  church  feels  that  he  ought  to  be  inter- 
ested in  the  services,  and  yet,  powerless  to  fix  his  attention,  he  sits  nod- 
ding ;  why  ?  Because  he  is  stupefied  by  foul  air.  The  air  breathed  over 
and  over  again  last  Sabbath  and  shut  in  during  the  week  is  all  the  poor 
man  can  obtain. 

169.  The  sleeping-room  should  be  thoroughly  ventilated. 
Proper  ventilation  would  often  prevent  morning  headaches, 
want  of  appetite  and  general  languor  so  common  among  the 
feeble.  The  impure  air  of  sleeping-rooms  probably  causes 
more  deaths  than  intemperance.  Those  who  live  in  open 
houses  little  superior  to  the  sheds  that  shelter  the  farmer's 
flocks  are  usually  the  most  healthy  and  robust ;  headaches, 
liver  complaints,  coughs  and  a  multitude  of  nervous  affections 
are  almost  unknown  to  them.  Not  so  with  those  who  spend 
their  days  and  nights  in  unventilated  rooms  with  double  win- 
dows, breathing  over  and  over  again  the  confined  air;  dis- 
ease and  suffering  are  their  constant  companions. 

Observation. — Among  children  convulsions  or  fits  often  occur  when 
they  ai'e  sleeping,  and  not  unfrequently  in  consequence  of  impure  air. 
In  such  cases,  by  carrying  the  suflerer  into  the  open  air  relief  is  afforded. 
Children  should  not  sleep  in  low  beds  while  adult  persons  occupy  a 
higher  bed  in  the  same  unventilated  room,  as  carbonic  acid  is  most 
abundant  near  the  floor ;  nor  is  it  advisable  that  the  young  sleep  with 
the  sick  or  aged. 

170.  The  ventilation  of  the  sick  room  should  receive  special 
attention.  It  is  no  unusual  practice,  when  the  patient  is  suf- 
fering from  acute  disease,  as  fevers,  for  the  attendants  to 
prevent  the  ingress  of  pure  air,  simply  from  fear  that  the 

observation.     What  is   said   of  the  ventilation  of  sleeping  rooms?     Observation. 
What  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  sick  loora  ? 


94  JBfATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE. 


sick  person  will  take  cold ;  and  caution  is  indeed  necessary , 
the  patient  should  not  feel  the  current. 

Observation. — No  room  is  suitable  for  sickness  that  is  not  so  arranged 
that  pure  air  may  be  constantly  admitted  without  inconvenience  or  in- 
jury to  the  patient ;  and  here  we  would  say  that  cool  air  should  not  be 
mistaken  for  pure  air.  A  very  little  sound  judgment  in  this  matter 
would  doubtless  save  much  suffering  and  lengthen  life  in  a  multitude 
of  cases.  The  custom  of  having  several  persons  sit  in  the  sick-room 
vitiates  the  air  and  delays  the  recovery  of  the  patient. 

171.  The  change  that  is  effected  in  the  blood  while  passing 
through  the  lungs,  not  only  depends  upon  the  purity  of  the  air 
but  the  amount  inspired.  The  quantity  varies  according  to 
the  size  of  the  chest,  the  movement  of  the  ribs  and  dia- 
phragm, and  the  health  of  the  lungs.  In  children  who  have 
never  worn  close  garments,  the  circumference  of  the  chest  is 
generally  ab^ut  equal  to  that  of  the  body  at  the  hips ;  and 
similar  proportions  would  exist  through  life  if  there  were  no 
improper  pressure  of  the  clothing.  Such  is  the  case  with  the 
Indian  woman,  whose  blanket  allows  the  free  expansion  of 
the  chest. 

Observation  1. — The  question  is  often  asked,  Can  the  size  of  the  chest 
and  the  volume  of  the  lungs  be  increased  when  they  have  been  once 
compressed  ?  Yes.  The  means  to  be  used  are,  a  full  inflation  of  the 
lungs  at  each  act  of  respiration,  and  a  judicious  exercise  of  them  by 
walking  in  the  open  air,  reading  aloud,  singing,  sitting  erect  and  prac- 
ticing appropriate  gymnastic  exercises.  Unless  these  exercises  are 
systematic  and  persistent,  they  will  not  afford  the  beneficial  results 
desired. 

2. — Persons  of  sedentary  habits  should  often,  during  the  day,  take 
full,  deep  breaths,  filling  the  smallest  air-cells  with  air ;  the  shoulders 
should  be  thrown  back  and  the  head  held  erect. 

172.  The  size  of  the  chest  and  lungs  can  be  diminished  by 
moderate  and  continued  pressure.  This  is  most  easily  done  in 
infancy,  when  the  cartilages  and  ribs  are  very  pliant ;  yet  it 
can  be  effected  at  more  advanced  periods  of  life. 

Observations. — 1.  The  Chinese,  by  compressing  the  feet  of  female 
children,  prevent  their  growth  ;  so  that  the  foot  of  a  Chinese  belle  is  not 

What  beside  purity  of  air  is  required  for  proper  respiration?     Observations.     Uow  can 
the  size  of  the  chest  be  diniiuislied? 


THE   RESPIRATORY  AND   VOCA.L.   ORGANS. 


95 


larger  than  the  foot  of  an  American  girl  of  five  years.  2.  The  Ameri- 
can women  compress  their  chests,  to  prevent  their  growth ;  so  that  the 
chest  of  an  American  belle  is  not  larger  than  the  chest  of  a  Chinese  girl 
of  five  years.  Which  country,  in  this  respect,  exhibits  the  greater  in- 
telligence ?  3.  The  chest  can  be  deformed  by  making  the  linings  of 
the  waists  of  the  dresses  tight,  as  well  as  by  corsets.  Tight  vests,  upon 
tlie  same  principle,  are  also  injurious. 

Fig.  88.  Fig.  89. 


Fig.  88.  A  Correct  Ootlixe  of  the  Venus  db  Medici,  the  heau  ideal  of  female  8yin« 
metry. 

Fig.  89.  As  Outline  of  a  'Well-Corseted  Modern  Beauty. 

One  has  an  artificial,  insect  waist ;  the  other,  a  natural  waist.  One  has  sloping  shoul- 
ders, while  the  shoulders  of  the  other  are  comparatively  elevated,  square  and  angular. 
The  proportion  of  the  corseted  female  below  the  waist  is  also  a  departure  from  the  sym- 
metry of  nature. 

173.  The  position  in  standing  and  sitting  influences  the  move' 
ment  of  the  ribs  and  diaphragm.  When  the  shoulders  are 
thrown  back,  and  when  a  person  stands  or  sits  erect,  the  dia- 
phragm and  ribs  have  more  freedom  of  motion,  the  abdomi- 
nal muscles  act  more  efficiently  and  the  lungs  have  broader 
range  of  movement.  When  the  lungs  are  properly  filled 
with  air,  the  chest  is  enlarged  in  every  direction.  If  any 
article  of  apparel  is  worn  so  tight  as  to  prevent  the  full  ex- 
state  why  position  in  standing  and  sitting  influences  respiration. 


96  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

pansion  of  the  chest  and  abdomen,  the  lungs,  in  consequence, 

do  not  receive  air  sufficient  to  purify  the  blood.     The  penalty 

for  thus  violating  a  law  of  our  being  is  disease  and  suffering. 

Observation. — But  few  persons  realize  the  small  amount  of  pressure 
that  will  prevent  the  enlargement  of  the  chest.  This  can  be  shown  by 
drawing  a  band  tightly  around  the  lower  part  of  the  chest  of  a  vigor- 
ous adult  and  confining  it  with  the  thumb  and  finger.  The  restricted 
movements  of  the  ribs  are  quite  apparent  in  endeavoring  to  inflate  the 
lungs. 

174.  The  state  of  the  7nmd  exercises  a  great  influence  upon 
respiration.  If  we  are  depressed  by  grief  or  feel  anxious 
about  friends  or  property,  the  diaphragm  and  muscles  that 
elevate  the  ribs  will  not  contract  with  the  same  energy,  the 
breathing  is  not  as  full  or  frequent  as  when  the  mind  is 
influenced  by  joy,  mirth  and  other  enlivening  emotions. 
Disappointed  hopes  is  a  frequent  cause  of  consumption. 

175.  Gymnastic  and  calisthenic  exercises  are  invaluable  aids 
to  the  culture  and  development  of  the  voice,  and  should  be  sed- 
ulously practiced  when  opportunity  renders  them  accessible. 
A  sedentary  mode  of  life,  the  want  of  invigorating  exercise, 
close  and  long-continued  application  of  mind,  and  perhaps 
an  impaired  state  of  health  or  a  feeble  constitution,  prevent, 
in  many  instances,  the  free  and  forcible  use  of  those  muscles 
on  wbich  voice  is  dependent. 

176.  The  art  of  cultivating  the  voice  has,  in  addition  to  the 
various  forms  of  bodily  exercise  practiced  for  the  general 
purpose  of  promoting  health,  its  own  specific  prescription  for 
securing  the  vigor  of  the  vocal  organs  and  modes  of  exercise 
adapted  to  the  training  of  each  class  of  organs  separately. 
A  few  weeks  of  diligent  cultivation  are  usually  sufficient  to 
produce  such  an  effect  on  the./vocal  organs  that  persons  who 
commence  practice  with  a  tieeble  and  ineffective  utterance 
attain  in  that  short  period:^^§  full  command  of  clear,  forcible 
and  varied  tone.  '^''^ 


By  what  is  respiration  muMjinfluenced  ?     Why  should  the  studpnt  practice  gymnastic 
and  calisthenic  exercises?    JPITdt  effect  has  culture  on  the  voice? 


THE   RESPIRATORY   AND   VOCAL   ORGANS.  97 

§  20.  Comparative  Anatomy  (Pneumonology).— ii!e.sptVator?/  Organs 
of  Mammals — Of  Birds — Of  Reptiles—  Of  Amphibians — Of  Fishes. 

111.  The  Kespiratory  Apparatus  in  other  Mammals  is 

similar  to  that  of  man  both  in  structure  and  function.     There 

are  similar  arrangements  and  movements  of  the  ribs,  sternum, 

intercostal  muscles  and  diaphragm.     The  lungs  fill  the  cavity 

of  the  chest,  and  have  the  same  general  composition  of  lobes, 

Vbules  and  air-cells.     (Fig.  90.) 

Observation. — The  development  and  health  of  domestic  animals  re- 
quire good-sized  lungs,  unrestricted  movement  of  the  chest  and  pure 
air,  as  in  man.  An  abundance  of  pure  air  is  particularly  needful  to 
domestic  fowls. 

178.  In  Birds  the  lungs  are  confined  to  the  back  wall  of 
the  chest.  They  are  not  separated  into  lobes,  but  are  oblong 
and  flattened  in  shape,  and  connected  with  a  series  of  air- 
receptacles  scattered  through  various  parts  of  the  body.  The 
ultimate  pulmonary  capillaries  do  not  form  a  network  lining 
definitely-bounded  air-cells,  as  in  mammals,  but  each  vessel 
crosses  an  open-air  space  of  its  own.  They  interlace  in  every 
direction,  forming  a  mass  of  capillaries  permeated  everywhere 
by  air. 

This  arrangement  not  only  reduces  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  body,  but  also  assists  largely  in  the  aeration  of  the  blood. 
A  marked  modification  of  the  respiration  of  birds  of  flight  is 
the  connection  of  the  pores  of  the  bones  and  feathers  with  the 
bronchial  tubes  and  air-spaces  of  the  lungs,  so  that  there  is 
an  interchange  of  air  between  the  lungs,  the  bones  and  the 
investing  plumage.  Birds  consume  more  air  in  a  given  time 
proportionally  than  any  other  vertebrate,  and  they  soonest 
die  when  deprived  of  it.     (Figs.  91,  92.) 

179.  In  Reptiles  respiration  is  more  simple  than  in  mam- 
mals or  birds.  The  lungs  are  less  lobular  and  more  bag-like, 
extending  into  the  abdominal  cavity.  Upon  the  walls  of 
these  sac-like  lungs  the  pulmonary  vessels  branch  out.     Owing 


Conparative  Pneumonology. — How  does  the  Respiratory  Apparatus  in  mammals  com- 
pare ■\vith  that  in  man?  Describe  the  Lungs  of  Birds.  What  is  said  of  the  Ultimate 
Pulmonary  Capillaries?  What  marked  modification  of  respiration  in  birds  of  flight? 
Speak  of  respiration  in  Reptiles. 

9  E 


98 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY    AND   HYGIENE. 


Fig.  90. 


1314: 


Fig.  90.  Section  OF  A  Small  Mammal, — 1,  Trachea.  2,  Lungs.  3,  Heart.  4,  Diaphragm. 
5,  Liver.  6,  Stomach.  7,  (Esophagus.  8,  Kidney.  9,  9,  Intestines.  10,  Bladder.  11, 
Cerebrum.    12,  Cerebellum.    13,  13,  Medulla  spinalis.    14, 14,  "Vertebrse. 


Fig.  92. 


Fig.  91. 


Pig.  91  (Owen).  The  Right  Lung  of  a  Goose. — 1,  A  bronchial  tube  which  divides  into 
two  tubes  that  open  into  the  abdominal  air-receptacles  at  2,  2. 

Fig.  92  (Owen).  Ideal  Section  of  a  Bird,  Magnified  Two  Hundred  and  Sixty  Times. — 
1,  A  bronchial  tube  that  ends  in  a  sac  (caeca).  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  Divisions  of  the  bronchial 
tubes  that  branch  out  among  the  lobules.    B,  A  plexus  of  capillary  vessels. 


THE   RESPIRATOKY  AND   VOCAL  OEGANS. 


99 


to  a  less  energetic  respiration  the  movements  of  Reptiles  are 
not  so  well  sustained. 

180.  The  Amphibians  when  young  (tadpoles)  breathe  by 
gills ;  before  becoming  adult  they  acquire  lung's,  but  the  res- 
piration is  comparatively  inactive.     In  Frogs  the  chest  is  not 

formed  so  as  to  act   like  a 

1  J  Fig.  9a 

suction-pump,  and  accord- 
ingly these  animals  swallow 
the  air  by  a  sort  of  degluti- 
tion.    (Fig.  93.) 

181.  In  Fishes  respiration 
is  performed  by  means  of  the 
air  dissolved  in  the  water. 
Instead  of  lobular  or  bag-like 
lungs,  there  are  found  only  a 
series  of  slit-like  openings  or 
arches  on  each  side  near  the 
head,  called  the  (branchiae) 
gills.  The  bony  and  car- 
tilaginous frames  of  these 
arches  on  the  convex  side 
support  processes.  On  these 
are  many  plates  or  leaflets, 
covered  by  a  delicate  membrane  (epithelium)  on  which  the  very 
minute  capillary  blood-vessels  branch  out.  By  this  arrange- 
ment the  blood-particles  are  more  minutely  separated  and  acted 
upon  by  the  air  in  the  water.  In  breathing,  the  mouth  and 
gills  of  a  fish  open  alternately;  the  water  entering  the  mouth 
escapes  by  the  openings  of  the  gills.  (Figs.  94,  95.)  A 
remarkable  feature  in  the  organization  of  some  fish  is  the 
swimming  or  air-bladder,  placed  in  the  abdomen  under  the 
back  fin,  communicating  often  with  the  oesophagus  or  stom- 
ach by  a  canal,  permitting  the  escape  of  air  from  its  inte- 
rior. By  a  movement  of  the  ribs  the  air-receptacle  is  acted 
on,  so  that  by  diminishing  the  quantity  of  air  the  specific 


Fig.  93  {Owen).  Heart  and  Lungs  of  a 
Frog. — 1,  Heart.  2,  Arch  of  the  aorta.  3, 3, 
Pulmonary  artery.  4,  4,  Pulmonary  veins 
5,  5,  Aorta.    6,  Vena  cava. 


In  Amphibians.    In  Fishes.    What  remarkable  feature  in  the  organization  of  some 
6Bh7 


100 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 


gravity  of  the  fish  alters  according  to  circumstances.  Fish 
that  swim  near  the  bottom  have  no  air-bladder,  as  the  Eei 
and  Turbot.     (Fig.  94.) 

182/  In  some  species  of  the  Annulosa^  as  certain  Spidei's, 
the  respiration  is  effected  by  air-bearing  tubes  (tracheae),  which 

Fig.  96. 


FiQ.  94  {Owen).  Section  of  a.  Branchiai  Arch,  with  a  pair  of  processes  supporting 
leaflets  or  plates  from  a  cod,  magnified  two  hundred  and  sixty  diameters. — 1,  A  section 
of  j;  branchial  arch.  2,  A  pair  of  processes.  3,  Branchial  leaflets  or  plates.  The  num- 
ber of  leaflets  in  one  process  of  the  cod  is  about  one  thousand  ;  in  the  salmon  fourteen 
hundred ;  in  the  sturgeon  sixteen  hundred. 

Fig.  95  {Owen).  A  Circulation  of  the  Blood  through  the  Branchial  Leaflets  (a  dia- 
gram).— 1,  A  section  of  a  branchial  arch.  2,  A  section  of  a  branchial  artery.  3,  An 
artery  sent  along  the  outer  margin  of  the  processes,  giving  oflF  capillary  vessels  to  the 
Icaflsts.  4,  A  vein  that  receives  the  blood  from  the  capillaries  on  the  inner  margin  of 
the  process  after  the  respiratory  change  has  been  efi'ected  and  returns  it  to  the  branchial 
vein  (6). 

communicate  with  the  exterior  by  small  openings  called 
Stig'mata.  These  openings  often  have  valves  which  open 
and  shut  like  the  folding  of  a  door.  Through  the  air-bear- 
ing tubes  the  function  of  respiration  is  performed  in  every 


Speak  of  respiration  in  some  species  of  the  Annulosa. 


THE  RESPIRATORY  AND  VOCAL  ORGANS.        iOl 

part  of  the  body.     This  mode  of  breathing  is  peculiar  to  in- 
sects.    (Fig.  96.) 

183.  In  the  Mollusaa  the  respiratory  organs  vary.     Some 


Fig,  96.  The  Respiratoet  Organs  of  the  Nepa  (Water  Scorpion). — 1,  The  head.  2,  Base 
of  the  feet  of  the  first  pair.  3,  First  ring  of  the  thorax.  4,  Base  of  wings.  5,  Base  of 
the  feet  of  the  second  pair.    6,  Stigmata.    7,  Tracheae.    8,  Aerial  vesicles. 

have  the  form  of  lungs,  but  in  a  state  of  great  simplicity, 
like  the  Land-snail ;  while  a  large  class  have  leaf-like  gills, 
constituting  what  is  known  in  the  Oyster  as  the  "  beard." 

Observation  1. — The  Gills  (branchiae)  of  the  Lobster  are  small  bodies 
attached  to  the  bases  of  the  legs,  and  placed  in  a  kind  of  chamber  formed 
beneath  the  shield  (carapace)  on  each  side  of  the  body.  By  the  move- 
ments of  the  legs  the  water  in  the  gill-chamber  is  constantly  renewed. 

2. — Some  of  the  lowest  class  of  animals  are  remarkable  for  the  dis- 
position of  their  respiratory  apparatus,  composed  of  membranous  tubea 
spread  out  like  a  tree,  as  the  Sea  Cucumber. 

Spsak  of  respiration  in  Mollusca.    In  the  Land-snail.    In  the  Oyster.    la  the  Lohster. 
9* 


102  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 


Fig.  98. 


Fig.  97. 


OF  KESPIRATORY  SYSTEM. 

Classes,  SiaTD-kingdoms,  Divisions,  -A-natoxny,  IPliysi- 

ology.  Hygiene. 


Stsvte  the  Anatomy,  the  Phys'ology  and  the  Hygiene  of  the  Respiratory  System,  Hu- 
man and  Comparative. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

THE  SKIN. 

S  31«  Anatomy  op  the  Skin. — The  Skin  an  Eliminating  Membrane, 
Layers  of  the  Skin.  The  Epidermis.  The  Cuticle.  The  Dermis, 
The  Papillary  Layer.  The  Corium.  The  Hair-follicles.  The  Oil- 
glands.     The  Perspiratory  Glands.     Nails. 

184.  We  have  thus  far  spoken  of  the  change  in  the  blood 
by  respiration ;  this  bright  red  blood,  freighted  with  nutri- 
ent material,  is  transmitted  to  the  capillaries  in  all  parts  of 
the  body.  In  these  minute  vessels  another  change  is  effected; 
and  the  useless  matter  is  more  or  less  expelled  from  the  blood 
by  the  different  vessels  of  the  membrane  that  covers  the 
body — the  Skin. 

185.  The  Skin  consists  of  two  layers ;  a  superficial  one, 
destitute  of  nerves  and  blood-vessels,  is  called  the  Epidermis,* 
and  a  deeper  layer,  abundantly  supplied  with  nerves  and 
blood-vessels,  called  the  DermiSf  or  Cutis  Vera  (true  skin). 
(Fig.  101.) 

186.  The  EpipERMis  consists  of  two  layers,  different  in 
many  respects,  one  called  the  Cuticle,  the  other  the  Soft  Epi- 
dermis (and  named  by  some  physiologists  the  Rete  Mucosum). 
The  epidermis  holds  the  same  relation  to  the  dermis  that  the 
epithelium  does  to  the  deeper  layer  of  the  mucous  membrane. 

The  Cuticle  is  a  horn-like  membrane.  Its  deeper  surface 
is  continuous  with  the  soft  epidermic  layer,  from  which  it  is 
constantly  renewed.  Its  free  surface  is  incessantly  wearing 
away  or  shed  in  small  flakes,  constituting  scurf  or  dandruff. 

The  Soft  Epidermis  consists  of  nucleated  cells  originat- 
ing on  the  surface  of  the  dermis.     It  is  the  seat  of  the  color 

Of  what  does  the  skin  consist?  Of  what  does  the  Epidermis  consist?  Give  the  rela« 
tion  of  the  Epidermis  to  the  Dermis.  What  is  the  Cuticle  ?  Of  what  does  the  Soft  Ep- 
idermis consist?    Where  is  the  seat  of  color  in  the  skin? 

*  Gr.  epi,  upon,  and  derma,  skin. 

103 


104 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


Fig.  101. 


of  the  skin.     The  difference  between  the  blonde  and  the  bru- 
nette, the  European  and  the  African,  lies  in  this  tissue. 

187.  The  Dermis 
or  True  Skin  presents 
two  very  different  sur- 
faces, of  which  the  ex- 
ternal is  called  the 
Papillary  layer,  the  in- 
ternal the  Corium. 

The  Papillary  or 
outer  layer  of  the  der- 
mis is  provided  with 
a  multitude  of  little 
conical-shaped  projec- 
tions. These  are  pro- 
longations of  the  upper 
compact  tissue  of  the 
corium  into  the  newly- 
formed  layer  of  the 
epidermis.  They  vary 
in  number  and  degree 
of  development  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  body. 
The  papillae  are  very 
numerous  on  the  palm 
of  the  hand  and  on  the 
free  border  of  the  lips. 
The  Corium  is  made 
up  of  interlacing  bundles  of  fibres.  These  are  so  interwoven 
as  to  constitute  a  firm,  flexible  web.  Here  the  arteries  of  the 
skin  penetrate  from  beneath,  and  end  in  a  capillary  network, 
from  which  looped  vessels  project  and  enter  the  papillary 
layer.  The  veins  emerging  from  the  skin  are  more  numerous 
and  much  larger  than  the  arteries.  The  lymphatics  also 
form  a  close  network  on  the  surface.     The  skin  is  abundantly 


14:"^      13 

Fig.  101.  A  Diagkam  op  the  Skin. — 1, 1,  The  lines 
or  ridges  of  the  cuticle,  cut  perpendicularly.  2,  2,  2, 
2,  2,  The  furrows  or  wrinkles  of  the  same.  3,  The 
cuticle.  4,  4,  The  colored  layer  of  the  cuticle.  5,  5, 
The  cutis  vera.  6,  6,  6,  6,  6,  The  papillae,  each  of 
which  answers  to  the  lines  on  the  external  surface  of 
the  skin.  7,  7,  Small  furrows  between  the  papillae. 
8,  8,  8,  8,  The  deeper  furrows  between  each  couple  of 
the  papillae.  9,  9,  Cells  filled  with  fat,  10,  10,  10, 
The  adipose  layer,  with  numerous  fat  vesicles.  12, 
Two  hairs.  13,  A  perspiratory  gland,  with  its  spiral 
duct.  14,  Another  perspiratory  gland,  with  a  duct 
less  spiral.  15, 15,  Oil-glands  with  ducts  opening  into 
the  sheath  of  the  hair  (12). 


What  is  said  of  the  Dermis  ?     Describe  the  Papillary  layer.    Speak  of  the  Corium. 
Of  its  vessels. 


THE  SKIN. 


105 


Fig.  102. 


supplied  with  nerves,  but  their  mode  of  termination  has  not 
been  accurately  ascertained. 

188.  Buried 
in  the  Corium 
are  Hair-folli- 
cles  or  sacs. 
Each  hair-folli- 
cle receives,  in 
nearly  all  cases, 
the  ducts  of  two 
Sehaceoiis  or 
Oil-Glands, 
which  are  situ- 
ated in  the  der- 
mis. They  are 
found  only 
where  hair  ex- 
ists. Each  gland 
is  a  flask-shaped 

body,  composed  of  from  five  to  twenty  little  sacs,  clustered 
around  and  leading  into  a  common  duct.  These  glands  are 
lined  by  a  fine  epithelium,  and  the  oily  secretion  first  anoints 
the  hair-bulb  and  then  oozes  out  upon  the  neighboring  sur- 
face of  the  cuticle. 

Observation. — At  the  bottom  of  the  follicle  is  a  more  or  less  elevated 
portion  of  the  dermis,  often  forming  a  distinct  papilla,  which  is  desti- 
tute of  cuticle.  The  root  of  the  hair  is  composed  of  soft,  pale  and 
somewhat  compressed  nucleated  cells ;  it  is  adherent  to  the  lining  of 
the  follicle  or  root-sheath.  When  a  hair  is  plucked  out,  the  sheath  ad- 
heres to  it,  hut  the  vascular  papilla  at  the  bottom  of  the  follicle  remains, 
and  a  new  hair  is  generated  upon  it.  If  the  papilla  is  destroyed,  no 
new  hair  can  be  formed.  All  these  papillae,  except  those  of  the  finest 
hairs,  probably  receive  nervous  fibrils.  The  part  of  the  hair  projecting 
above  the  surface  is  called  the  shaft. 

189.  Immediately  beneath  the  skin,  over  the  whole  surface 
of  the  body,  there  are  a  multitude  of  little  glandular  bodies, 


Fig.  102.  The  Arteries  and  Veins  of  a  Section  of  the  Skin.— 
A,  A,  Arterial  branches.  B,  B,  Capillary,  or  hair-like  vessels,  in 
which  the  large  branches  terminate.  C,  the  venous  trunk,  col- 
lecting the  blood  from  the  capillaries. 


Describe  the  Hair-follicles.    Describe  the  different  parts  of  a  hair.    Describe  the  Oil- 
glands. 

E* 


106 


ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 


called  Perspiratory  or  Sweat  Glands.  Each  gland  consists  of 
a  minute,  cylindrical,  spiral  duct,  which  passes  inward  through 
the  epidermis,  and  terminates  in  a  globular  coil  in  the  deeper 

Fig.  103. 


Fig.  103.  A  Diagram. — 1, 1,  The  cuticle.    2,  2,  Its  soft  layer.    4,  4,  The  network  of 
nerves.    5,  5,  The  Dermis.    6,  C,  C,  Three  nerves  that  divide  from  the  network  (4,  4). 

meshes  of  the  true  skin.     The  opening  of  the  duct  upon  the 

cuticle  is  called  the  "pore."     (Fig.  101.) 

Observation. — This  aperture  is  oblique  in  direction,  and  possesses  all 
the  advantages  of  a  valvular  opening,  preventing  the  ingress  of  foreign 
injurious  substances  to  the  interior  of  the  duct  or  gland.  It  is  estima- 
ted that  six  thousand  glands  exist  on  every  square  inch  of  surface,  and 
the  combined  length  of  the  glandular  tubing  in  the  body  is  between 
two  and  three  miles.  These  glands,  coming  in  contact  with  the  capil- 
lary blood-vessels,  receive  a  watery  fluid  (the  perspiration)  from  the 
blood.  The  formation  of  perspiration  is  constant,  but  usually  evapora- 
tion takes  place  as  fast  as  it  reaches  the  surface.  This  is  called  the 
"insensible  transpiration"  of  the  skin. 

190.  The  Nails  are  horny  appendages  of  the  skin,  and 
correspond  with  the  hoofs  and  claws  of  animals.  They  aie 
flexible  plates  continuous  with  the  epidermis,  and  rest  on  the 
depressed  surface  of  the  dermis,  called  the  bed.  By  macera- 
tion or  severe  scalding,  even  in  life,  the  nail  is  detached  with 
the  epidermis. 

Where  are  the  Sweat-glands?    What  are  "pores"?    What  is  "insensible  transpir*- 
tion "?     Speak  of  the  Nails.    Of  what  is  the  horny  part  composed? 


THE   SKIN. 


107 


I  22,  Physiology  of  the  Skin.  Functions  of  the  Skin.  Uses  of  the 
Epidermis.  The  Corium.  The  Lymphatic  Vessels  of  the  Skin.  Func- 
tion of  the  Oil-glands.  Uses  of  Perspiration.  Conditions  that  Modify 
Quantity  of  Perspiration.     The  Function  of  the  Hair — Of  the  Nails. 

191.  The  Functions  of  the  Skin  are  threefold :  1st,  As 
a  Protecting  membrane ;  2d,  As  a  Medium  for  the  distribution 
of  the  nerve-filaments  of  touch ;  and  3d,  As  an  Eliminating 

or  discharging  organ. 

Fig.  104. 
12  3  4 


Fig.  104.  Oil-Glanbs  and  Ducts,  magnified  thirty-eight  diameters.  1,  A,  Oil-gland 
from  the  scalp ;  B,  Its  duct.  2,  A,  Two  glands  from  the  skin  of  the  nose ;  B,  Connnou 
duct.  3,  A,  Oil-gland  from  the  nose ;  B,  The  duct  filled  with  the  peculiar  animalcule 
of  the  oily  substance  ;  the  heads  are  directed  inward.  4,  A,  Cluster  of  oil-glands  around 
the  shaft  of  the  hair  (C);  B,  Ducts. 

192.  The  uses  of  the  Epidermis  are  various.  It  serves  to 
cover  and  protect  the  delicate  sensitive  parts  beneath  it ;  to 
prevent  the  too  rapid  escape  of  heat;  and  to  restrain  the 
evaporation  of  the  fluids  of  the  skin  and  its  appendages,  at 
the  same  time  that  it  furnishes  a  medium  through  which 
these  secretions  can  reach  the  surface  of  the  body. 

Observation. — The  cuticle  is  constantly  destroyed  and  replaced,  as  is 
proved  by  the  disappearance  from  the  skin  of  such  stains  as  those  pro- 
duced by  nitrate  of  silver,  or  the  scales  thrown  oiF  after  some  acute  dis- 
eases, as  scarlatina.  The  restoration  of  the  cuticle  is  observed  after  the 
process  of  vesication  by  blisters,  and  in  consequence  of  burns  and  scalds. 
By  these  means  large  patches  of  cuticle  are  removed ;  but  they  are  re- 


Name  the  functions  of  the  Skin.    What  are  the  uses  of  the  Epidermis? 


108 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


Fig.  105. 


Fig.  105.  A  Section  of  the  End  op 
THE  Finger  and  Nail. — 4,  Section  of 
the  last  bone  of  tlie  finger.  5,  Fat, 
forming  tbe  cushion  at  the  end  of  the 
finger.  2,  'J'he  nail.  1, 1,  The  cuticle 
continued  under  and  around  the  root 
of  the  nail  at  3,  3,  3. 


newed  in  a  short  time,  under  favorable  circumstances.     The  colored 
substance  is  also  capable  of  rapid  reproduction. 

193.  In  the  Corium,  or  internal  layer  of  the  skin,  resides  vi- 
tality. It  varies  in  thickness  in 
different  parts  of  the  body.  The 
unevenness  of  this  soft  layer  of 
the  skin  has  reference  to  an  im- 
portant law  in  animal  organiza- 
tion— that  of  multiplying  sur- 
face for  the  increase  of  function. 
This  object  is  effected  by  the  lit- 
tle prominences  or  Papillce. 

194.  The  surface  of  the  skin 
possesses  the  power  of  absorbing 
both  liquids  and  vapors.  The 
principal,  if  not  sole,  agents  of  this  function  on  the  surface 
of  the  body  are  the  cutaneous  Lymphatic  vessels,  which  are 
active  in  proportion  to  the  thinness  or  absence  of  the  cuticle. 
To  a  slight  extent  the  skin  is  a  respiratory  membrane  in  man, 
giving  off  carbonic  gas  and  actually  absorbing  oxygen. 

195.  The  Sebaceous  matter  from  the  Oil-glands  anoints  the 

hairs  with  oil  in  their  progress  of  growth  from  the  skin,  and 

also  imbues  or  covers  the  cuticle,  by  which  it  is  rendered  re- 

pellant  of  water. 

Observation. — The  oiliness  of  the  surface  of  the  skin,  occasioned  by 
this  material,  permits  the  ready  adhesion  of  dast  and  dirt,  and  neces- 
sitates the  use  of  soap  for  the  easy  removal  of  its  excess.  This  oily 
product  often  becomes  thickened  and  distends  the  glands,  most  fre- 
quently in  the  face,  and  especially  on  the  nose,  and  at  the  mouths  of 
the  ducts  it  becomes  mixed  with  dust.  When  pressed  out  it  assumes 
the  spiral  form  of  the  duct ;  hence  it  is  commonly  taken  for  a  worm. 
In  the  healthiest  individuals  the  sebaceous  matter  contains  a  curious 
parasite,  called  the  "  pimple  mite." 

196.  The  uses  of  the  Perspiration  or  sweat  are  twofold : 
1st,  To  free  the  system  of  a  certain  quantity  of  water ;  in 
effecting  this  purpose,  the  perspiratory  function   becomes  a 


Describe  the  Corium.     State  the  use  of  the  Lymphatic  vessels  of  the  Skin. 
the  uses  of  the  Oil-glands?    What  are  the  functions  of  Perspiration? 


What  are 


THE   SKIN.  109 

regulator  of  the  temperature  of  the  body ;  2(1,  To  expel 
from  the  body  certam  special  products  of  chemical  changes. 
Sauctorius  estimated  that  five  of  every  eight  pounds  of  food 
and  drink  was  discharged  from  the  body  through  the  many 
outlets  of  the  skin. 

Observation  1. — The  quantity  of  perspiration  exhaled  by  different 
parts  of  the  body  differs  widely.  Its  general  quantity  is  influenced  both 
by  internal  and  external  conditions;  thus,  it  is  increased  by  a  higher 
temperature  of  the  body,  by  a  quicker  circulation,  and  therefore  by 
exercise  and  effort  generally.  Perspiration  may  also  be  induced  by 
additional  covering  of  the  body,  and  also  by  peculiar  conditions  of  the 
nervous  system. 

2. — Of  the  external  conditions  which  modify  the  quantity  of  perspi- 
ra'tion,  the  condition  of  the  atmosphere  is  most  important.  Thus,  in 
warm  air  the  activity  of  the  circulation  of  the  skin  is  increased,  which 
increases  the  perspiration,  whilst  cold  air  has  the  opposite  effect ;  again, 
dry  air  increases  the  perspiration,  whilst  damp  air  diminishes  it. 

3. — The  skin  is  said  to  regulate  the  quantity  of  fluid  given  off  by  the 
kidneys  and  the  quantity  of  fluid  left  in  reserve  in  the  blood  and  soft 
tissues  generally.  Observation  shows  that  in  cold  weather  the  skin  ex- 
hales less  and  the  kidneys  excrete  more  uuid,  while  in  warm  weather 
the  skin  expels  more  and  the  kidneys  less. 

197.  The  use  of  the  insensible  outgrowth  of  the  epidermis, 
the  Hair,  is  protection ;  and  the  function  of  the  Nails  is  not 
only  protection,  but  support  to  the  yielding  softness  of  the 
flesh  at  the  finger-tips. 


^  23.  Hygiene  of  the  Skin.  The  Condition  of  the  SHn.  Clothing. 
Kind  of  Material  for  Clothing.  Class  of  Persons  that  need  More  Cloth- 
ing. Cleanliness  of  Clothing.  Bathing — Modes  of  Bathing — Time  for 
Baths — General  Mules  for  Bathing — Water  a  Curative  Agent.  Air 
Beneficial  to  the  Skin.     Effect  of  Light  on  the  Skin. 

198.  The  skin  is  in  constant  activity ;  the  watery  part  of 
the  perspiration  is  removed  by  evaporation,  the  more  solid 
waste  matter  is  deposited  upon  the  surface  of  this  membrane. 
To  maintain  its  healthy  action  in  every  part,  attention  must  be 
given  to  Clothing,  Bathing,  Light  and  Air. 

199.  Clothing  is  chiefly  useful  in  preventing  the  escape 

Give  the  uses  of  the  Hair — Of  the  Nails.    What  is  said  of  the  use  of  Clothing? 
10 


110  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 

of  too  much  heat  from  the  body,  and  in  protecting  the  body 
from  exposure  to  the  evil  effects  of  a  varying  temperature  of 
the  atmosphere.  In  selecting  and  applying  clothing,  the  fol- 
lowing should  be  observed : 

200.  The  material  for  clothing  should  be  a  bad  conductor  of 
heat.  As  air  is  a  non-conductor,  material  should  be  chosen 
which  is  capable  of  retaining  much  air  in  its  meshes,  and  as 
moisture  increases  the  conducting  power,  the  material  should 
not  be  such  as  will  absorb  or  retain  moisture. 

Observation. — Furs  retain  much  air  in  their  meshes  and  absorb 
scarcely  any  moisture,  and  consequently  are  well  adapted  to  those  sub- 
ject to  the  great  exposures  of  very  cold  climates.  Woolen  cloth,  next  to 
furs  and  eider  down,  retains  the  most  air  and  absorbs  the  least  moisture; 
hence  it  is  a  good  article  of  apparel  for  all  persons,  unless  too  irritable 
to  an  over-sensidve  skin.  In  that  case  the  flannel  may  be  lined  with 
cotton,  or  silk  may  be  substituted.  When  of  sufficient  body  or  thick- 
ness, silk  is  a  good  article  for  inner  clothing,  excepting  when  it  pro- 
duces too  much  disturbance  of  the  electricity  of  the  system.  Next  to 
these  articles,  cotton  is  well  adapted  for  garments  worn  next  the  skin. 
Linen  should  never  be  worn  by  persons  in  any  way  enfeebled,  even  in 
warm  weather  or  in  hot  climates.  It  is  a  good  conductor  of  heat  and 
readily  absorbs  moisture ;  hence,  with  such  covering,  the  body  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  layer  of  moisture  instead  of  air. 

201.  The  clothing  should  be  both  porous  and  loosely  fitted. 
The  necessity  of  porous  clothing  is  seen  in  the  wearing  of  India- 
rubber  overshoes.  In  a  short  time  the  hose  and  under-boot 
become  damp  from  retained  perspiration.  The  waste  matter 
thus  left  in  contact  with  the  skin  is  reconveyed  into  the  sys- 
tem by  absorption,  causing  headache  and  other  diseases.  Free 
exhalation,  and  a  layer  of  air  secured  by  loose  clothing,  en- 
able the  skin  to  absorb  oxygen,  which  gives  it  tone  and  vigor. 

Observation. — As  the  design  of  additional  clothing  is  to  enclose  strat- 
ums  or  layers  of  warm  air,  we  should,  in  going  from  a  warm  room 
into  cold  air,  put  on  our  extra  covering  some  time  previous  to  going 
out,  that  the  layers  of  air  which  we  carry  with  us  may  be  warmed  by 
the  heat  of  the  room,  and  not  borrowed  from  the  heat  of  the  body. 

202.  The  clothing  must  be  suited  to  the  state  of  the  atmosphere 


Of  what  material  should  it  he  ?    Observation.    Why  should  the  clothing  be  porous  and 
loosely  fitted?     Observation.    To  what  must  it  be  suited? 


THE  SKIN.  Ill 

and  to  the  condition  of  the  individual.  Sudden  changes  of 
temperature  should  be  regarded ;  but  it  is  usually  unsafe  to 
make  changes  from  thick  to  thin  clothing,  excepting  in  the 
morning,  when  the  vital  powers  are  in  full  play.  The  even- 
ing usually  demands  an  extra  garment,  as  the  atmosphere  is 
more  cool  and  damp,  and  we  have  also  less  vital  energy  than 
in  the  early  part  of  the  day. 

Observation. — Many  a  young  lady  has  laid  the  foundation  of  a  fatal 
disease  by  exchanging  the  thick  dress,  warm  hose  and  shoes  for  the 
flimsy  fabric,  thin  hose  and  shoes  which  are  considered  suitable  for  the 
ball-room  or  party.  All  sudden  changes  of  this  kind  are  attended  with 
hazard,  which  is  proportionate  to  the  weakness  or  exhaustion  of  the 
system  when  the  change  is  made. 

203.  The  child  and  the  aged  person  require  more  clothing 
than  the  vigorous  person  of  middle  age.  Judging  from  ob- 
servation, we  should  infer  that  children  needed  less  clothing 
than  adults.  The  exposure  to  which  the  vain  and  thoughtless 
mother  subjects  her  child  very  frequently  lays  the  foundation 
for  future  disease.  Those  who  have  outlived  the  energies  of 
adult  life  also  need  special  care  regarding  a  proper  amount 
of  clothing. 

Observation. — The  system  of  "  hardening"  children,  of  which  we  some- 
times hear,  is  as  inhuman  as  it  is  unprofitable.  To  make  the  child 
robust  and  active,  he  must  have  nutritious  food  at  stated  hours,  free 
exercise  in  the  open  air,  and  be  guarded  from  the  cold  by  proper  apparel. 

204.  When  a  vital  organ  is  diseased,  more  clothing  is  needed. 
In  consumption,  dyspepsia,  and  even  headache,  the  skin 
usually  is  pale  and  the  extremities  cold,  because  less  heat  is 
generated.  Persons  suffering  from  these  complaints  need 
more  clothing  than  those  with  healthy  organs. 

205.  Persons  of  active  habits  need  less  clothing  than  those  of 
sedentary  employment.  Exercise  increases  the  circulation  of 
the  blood,  consequently  the  vital  activities  become  more  ener- 
getic, and  more  heat  is  produced.  We  need  less  clothing 
when  walking  than  when  riding. 

Obserration.  Who  require  the  more  clothing?  Observation.  What  is  said  of  cloth- 
ing when  a  vital  organ  is  diseased  ?  What  persons  need  less  clothing?  What  is  said  of 
sleanliness  of  the  clothing? 


112  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

206.  The  clothing  should  he  kept  clean.  Some  portion  of 
the  exhaled  fluids  of  the  body  must  necessarily  be  absorbed 
by  the  clothing ;  hence,  warmth,  cleanliness  and  health  re- 
quire that  it  should  be  frequently  changed  and  thoroughly 
washed.  Under- garments  worn  through  the  day  should  not 
be  worn  through  the  night,  nor  the  reverse.  When  taken 
from  the  body,  such  garments  should  not  be  hung  in  the 
closet  or  put  into  the  drawer,  but  exposed  to  a  current  of 
fresh  air. 

207.  Damp  clothing  is  injurious.     All  articles  from  the 

laundry  should  be  well  aired  before  being  worn.     When  the 

clothing  is  wet  by  accident  or  exposure,  it  should  be  changed 

immediately,  unless  the  person  is  exercising  so  vigorously  as 

to  prevent  the  slightest  chill.     When  the  exercise  ceases,  the 

body  should  be  rubbed  with  a  dry  crash  towel  till  a  thorough 

reaction  takes  place. 

Observation. — The  covering  of  beds  should  be  thoroughly  aired  every 
morning,  and  frequently  renewed.  Beds  and  bedding  that  have  not 
been  used  for  some  weeks  become  damp,  and  should  be  dried  before  use. 
A  hostess  cannot  be  guilty  of  a  more  inhospitable  act  than  that  of  send- 
ing her  guest  to  her  fine  guest-chamber,  to  occupy  a  bed  which  has  been 
long  unused. 

208.  Bathing  is  indispensable  to  sound  health  as  well  as 
to  cleanliness.  The  skin  soon  becomes  covered  with  a  mix- 
ture of  perspirable  matter,  oil  and  dust,  which,  if  allowed  to 
remain,  interferes  with  the  action  of  the  skin  as  an  excretory 
organ.  This  increases  the  action  of  the  lungs,  kidneys,  liver, 
etc.,  which  take  upon  themselves  the  excretory  work  which 
the  skin  fails  to  perform. 

Observation. — By  overwork  the  liver  becomes  diseased,  and  if  it  is 
continued,  the  result  will  be  consumption  and  other  diseases  of  the  vital 
organs.  Again,  obstruction  of  the  pores  will  prevent  respiration  through 
the  skin,  and  deprive  the  blood  of  one  source  of  its  oxygen  and  one 
outlet  of  its  carbonic  acid. 

209.  Bathing  gives  tone  and  vigor  to  the  internal  orgaiu. 
When  cool  water  is  applied  to  the  body,  the  skin  instantly 

What  of  damp  clothing?     What  is  indispensable  to  health ?    What  effect  has  bathing 
on  the  Internal  organs  ?    Give  observation. 


THE   SKIN.  113 

shrinks  and  the  whole  of  its  tissue  contracts.  This  contrac- 
tion diminishes  the  capacity  of  the  blood-vessels,  and  a  por- 
tion of  the  blood  is  thrown  upon  the  internal  organs.  The 
nervous  system  is  stimulated,  and  communicates  its  stimulus 
to  the  whole  system.  This  causes  a  more  energetic  action  of 
the  heart  and  blood-vessels,  and  a  consequent  rush  of  blood 
back  to  the  skin.  This  is  the  state  termed  reaction^  the  first 
object  and  purpose  of  every  form  of  bathing. 

Observation  1. — By  this  reaction  the  internal  organs  are  relieved,  res- 
piration is  lightened,  the  heart  is  made  to  beat  calm  and  free,  the  tone 
of  the  muscular  system  is  increased,  the  appetite  is  sharpened,  the  mind 
more  clear  and  strong,  and  the  whole  system  seems  to  possess  new 
power.  Regularity  in  bathing  is  necessary  to  produce  permanently 
good  effects. 

2. — The  simplest  modes  of  bathing  are  by  means  of  the  sponge  or 
the  shallow  baths.  The  body  may  be  quickly  sponged  over,  wiped 
dry  and  followed  by  friction.  The  water  may  be  warm  or  cold.  If 
cold,  the  bath  should  be  taken  in  the  early  part  of  the  day,  and  fol- 
lowed by  exercise.  If  exercise  cannot  be  taken,  the  individual  should 
rest  under  covering.  The  warm  bath  should  usually  be  taken  just  be- 
fore retiring. 

210.  The  frequency  of  bathing  must  depend  upon  the  con- 
dition and  occupation  of  the  individual.  Daily  bathing  may 
be  practiced  with  profit  by  most  persons,  but  to  the  studious 
and  sedentary  it  is  in  most  cases  absolutely  indispensable. 

The  hour  for  ablution  is  of  importance.  It  should  neither 
immediately  precede  nor  follow  a  meal.  The  same  is  true  of 
severe  mental  and  muscular  exercise.  The  bath  is  less  bene- 
ficial in  the  afternoon  than  the  forenoon.  The  best  time  for 
cold  baths  is  two  or  three  hours  after  breakfast.  The  system 
is  then  at  **  flood-tide,"  while  from  that  time  till  the  retiring 
hour  the  tide  is  ebbing ;  hence,  the  worst  time  for  a  cold  bath 
is  at  bed- time. 

Observation  1. — For  those  who  cannot  choose  their  time,  the  hour  cf 
rising  will  answer  very  well — that  is,  for  many  persons,  especially  if 
they  become  accustomed  to  the  use  of  water  by  beginning  at  another 
and  a  better  hour.     If  the  mind  and  body  are  brightened  by  the  early 

Upon  what  must  depend  the  frequency  of  bathing?     What  should  the  time  be? 
10* 


114  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 

bath,  and  an  exhilaration  follows,  the  bath  is  beneficial ;  if,  on  the  con» 
trary,  languor  follows,  and  the  skin  looks  blue  or  too  pale,  it  is  injuri- 
ous. That  the  bath  is  to  be  followed  by  exercise  must  not  be  forgotten. 
2. — In  diseases  of  the  skin,  and  many  chronic  ailments  of  the  inter- 
nal organs,  bathing  is  a  remedial  measure  of  great  power.  In  disease 
which  has  baffled  the  skill  of  physicians  depending  wholly  upon  inter- 
nal remedies,  the  effect  of  a  systematic  course  of  baths  is  often  surpris- 
ing. Like  other  curative  means,  the  baths  should  be  directed  by  those 
who  thoroughly  ujaderstand  the  use  of  water  as  a  remedial  agency. 
Matters  of  diet,  exwcise,  etc.,  require  adaptation  to  the  treatment  of  the 
particular  case.  Those  who  desire  the  full  benefit  of  these  means  must 
avail  themselves  of  the  appliances  of  a  well-conducted  hygienic  estab- 
lishment. 

211.  Pure  Air  is  au  agent  of  great  importance  in  the 
functions  of  the  skin.  It  imparts  to  this  membrane  some 
oxygen,  and  receives  from  it  carbonic  acid  gas.  It  likewise 
removes  perspiration  and  portions  of  the  oily  secretion. 

212.  Light  exercises  a  very  salutary  influence  upon  the 
skin.  It  is  no  less  essential  to  the  vigor  of  animal  than  of 
vegetable  life.  Dwelling-houses  should  be  built  with  refer- 
ence to  the  free  admission  of  sunlight  and  air  into  all  occu- 
pied rooms. 

Observation. — The  dark,  damp  rooms  so  much  used  by  indigent  fami- 
lies and  domestics  in  cities  and  large  villages  are  fruitful  causes  of  vice, 
poverty  and  suffering.  Ladies  often  suffer  seriously  from  too  much 
exclusion  of  sunlight.  Excepting  in  very  warm  weather,  they  should 
practice  sitting  or  exercising  in  the  full  sunshine  of  the  out-door  world. 

In  what  diseases  is  bathing  of  great  importance?    Observations.    State  the  influence 
of  pure  air.    What  influence  does  light  exercise  ?    Give  a  cause  of  vice. 


SYNTHETIC  TOFICA^Hi  REVIEW. 

EPIDERMIS— DERMIS— VESSELS  OF  THE  SKIN— APPENDAGES  OF  TUB  SKIN. 

State  tlie  J^Lixatomy,  th.e  J?h.ysiology,  the  Hygiene  of 
tlae  Skin  and  its  A.ppend.ages. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

THE  CIRCULATORY  ORGANS. 

213.  The  Blood  is  the  most  important  as  well  as  the  most 
abundant  fluid  in  the  body.  When  expelled  from  the  lunga 
to  the  left  cavity  of  the  heart,  it  contains  all  the  materials 
for  the  support  of  every  part  of  the  animal  frame.  In  order 
that  the  blood  with  its  cargo  of  supplies  should  fulfill  its  mis- 
sion of  nutrition,  it  must  be  kept  constantly  moving  in  a  cir- 
cuit, or  from  the  heart  outward  to  every  part  of  the  body, 
and  from  the  tissues  backward  to  the  heart  to  be  renewed. 
This  movement  is  called  its  Circulation.  The  organs  through 
which  the  blood  circulates  are  the  Heart,  the  Arteries, 
the  Veins  and  the  Capillaries. 

I  24.  Anatomy  of  the  CiRCUiiATORY  Organs. — Construction  of  the 
Heart.  The  Arteries,  Veins  and  Capillaries,  and  their  Relation  to  each 
other.     The  Aorta  and  its  Divisions.    Arrangement  of  the  Veins. 

214.  The  Heart  is  placed  in  the  left  side  of  the  chest, 
between  the  right  and  left  lung.  It  is  a  hollow  muscle  en- 
closed in  a  sac,  named  Pericardium.  Its  length  is  about  five 
inches,  and  its  basal  diameter  about  four  inches.  The  heart 
consists  of  four  cavities  or  chambers,  two  on  each  side,  called 
Auricles  and  Ventricles.  The  auricles  receive  the  blood  com- 
ing into  the  heart  by  the  veins,  the  ventricles  expel  the  blood 
out  of  this  organ  by  the  arteries.     (Fig.  107.) 

215.  The  Pericardium  (the  heart  case)  is  a  membrane 
j*ot  only  spread  over  the  external  surface  of  the  heart,  but  is 
reflected  or  doubled  in  itself,  so  as  to  form  a  loose  sac;  it 
protects  the  heart  from  friction  against  other  parts.    (Fig.  106.) 

216.  The  Auricles  differ  in  muscularity  from  the  ventri- 

What  is  said  of  the  Mood?  Why  must  the  blood  be  kept  in  circulation?  Namo  the 
Circulatory  organs.  Describe  the  heart.  The  Pericardium.  How  many  cavities? 
What  are  they  called?     Describe  the  Auricles. 

115 


116 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


cles.     Their  walls  are  thinner,  and  of  a  bluish  color.     They 
occupy  the  basal  end  of  the  heart. 

217.  The  Ventricles  not  only  have  thicker  walls  than 
the  auricles,  but  those  of  the  left  ventricle  are  thicker  and 
stronger  than  the  right.  In  the  interior  of  these  cavities 
arise  fleshy  columns  called  columfnce  car'necd. 

218.  Folds  of  membrane  called  Valves  are  found  between 
the  auricles  and  ventricles.  In  the  right  side  of  the  heart 
there  are  three  folds  or  doublings,  called  the  tri-cus^pid  valves. 
Between  the  auricle  and  ventricle,  in  the  left  side,  there  are 
two  valves,  called  the  mi'tral.  There  are  seen  passing  from 
the  floating  edge  of  these  valves  to  the  columnse  carneie, 

Fig.  106.  Fig.  107. 


4r.. 


Fig.  106.  A  Diagram  of  thk  Heart. — 1, 1,  Right  and  left,  auricle.  2,  2,  Right  and  left 
ventricle.    3,  4,  The  pericardium.    5,  6,  Large  blood-vessels  (arteries). 

Fig.  107.  Ideal  Heart. — 1,  Right  auricle.  2,  Riglit  ventricle.  9,  Left  auricle.  10, 
Left  ventricle.    17,  Tri-cuspid  valves.    19,  Mitral  valves. 

small  white  cords,  called  chor'dce  tenfdi-nce,  which  prevent 
the  floating  edge  of  the  valve  from  being  carried  into  the 
auricle.     (Fig.  107.) 

219.  The  Arteries  are  firm,  membranous  tubes,  arising 
from  the  ventricles  of  the  heart  by  two  trunks ;  that  from 
the  left  ventricle,  named  the  Aortaj  is  the  systemic  trunk: 
and  that  from  the  right  ventricle,  named  the  Pulmonic  artery, 
is  the  pulmonic  trunk.     (Fig.  108.) 

220.  The  Aorta  rises  from  the  left  ventricle  for  a  short 


Describe  the  Ventricles.    The  Valves  of  the  heart.    What  are  the  Arteries? 
what  part  of  the  heart  arises  the  Aorta,  and  give  its  course  ? 


From 


THE   CIRCULATORY   ORGANS. 
Fig.  108. 


117 


COMMON  cAnoria  AKrear-- 

SXTERNfiL  JUGULAR  VEIN 
INTERNAL  JUeULAR  VEIN- 
CLMICie- 
,       U0/V--,/' 
9VBCLMIAN\f^ffj[PY--j^ 


AX,LLMY[       VEIN....\MM 


BRACHmL  I'^'i^w:';.--' 


warn  rj^:: 


118 


ANATOlVnf,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE. 


.  distance  behind  the  sternum  and  then  curves  downward,  form- 
ing a  semicircular  bend,  called  the  Arch  of  the  Aorta.  It 
then  passes  downward,  parallel  with  the  spinal  column.  This 
systemic  trunk  (Figs.  108,  109)  divides  and  subdivides  into 
finer  and  finer  arteries,  like  the  branches  from  the  trunk  of 
a  tree,  excepting  that  these  branches  communicate  with  each 
othei  in  a  finer  network  till  the  ultimate  ramifications,  t(K) 
minute  to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye,  extend  to  every  nook 

Fig.  109. 


Fia.  109.  The  Pulmonary  Aetert. — t.  The  trachea,  h.  The  heart,  a,  The  aorta,  p. 
The  pulmonary  artery.  1,  The  branch  of  the  pulmonary  artery  that  divides  in  the  left 
lung.    2,  The  branch  that  divides  in  the  right  lung. 

and  corner  and  atom  of  the  body.     These  final  branches  are 
called  Capillaries. 

Observation. — The  name  given  to  the  aorta  in  the  chest  is  Thoracic 
1l  the  abdomen  it  is  named  the  Abdominal  aorta.  In  the  sacral  pari 
of  the  abdomen  it  finally  separates  into  two  divisions,  called  Iliac  arte- 
ries. In  the  thigh,  above  the  knee,  its  sub-division  is  named  Femoral ; 
below  the  knee,  Anterior  and  Posterior  Tibial  arteries.  From  the  Arch 
of  the  Aorta  there  are  given  off  several  large  branches — the  Carotid, 
which  carries  blood  to  the  head ;  the  Subclavian  ;  its  branches  in  the 

State  the  names  of  the  Aorta  in  dififerent  parts  of  the  body. 


THE   CIRCULATORY  ORGANS. 


119 


arm  are  named  Brachial ;  below  the  elbow,  Eadial  and  Ulnar  arteries.  ^ 
(Figs.  108,  115.) 

221.  The  Pulmonary  Artery  commences  in  front  of  the 
origin  of  the  aorta.  It  ascends  obliquely  to  the  under  surface 
of  the  arch  of  the  aorta,  where  it  divides  into  two  branches, 
one  of  which  passes  to  the  right,  the  other  to  the  left  lung. 
These  divide  and  subdivide  in  the  structure  of  the  lungs  and 
terminate  in  the  capillary  vessels,  which  form  a  network 
around  the  air-cells  and  become  continuous  with  the  minute 
branches  of  the  pulmonary  veins.     (Fig.  109.) 

Fig.  110.  Fig.  111. 


Fio.  110,  An  Ideal  View  of  a  Portion  of  the  Pulmonic  Circulation. — 1, 1,  A  branch 
of  the  artery  that  carries  the  impure  blood  to  the  lungs.  3,  3,  Capillary  vessels.  2,  2,  A 
rein  through  which  red  blood  is  returned  to  the  left  side  of  the  heart. 

Fio.  111.  An  Ideal  View  of  a  Portion  op  the  Systemic  Circulation. — 1, 1,  A  branch 
of  the  aorta.  This  terminates  in  the  capillaries  (3,  3).  2,  2,  A  vein  through  which  the 
impure  blood  is  carried  to  the  right  side  of  the  heart. 

222.  The  Capillaries  serve  to  connect  the  termination 
of  the  arteries  with  the  beginning  of  the  veins,  so  that  it  is 
impossible  to  tell  just  where  the  artery  ends  and  the  vein 
begins.  In  these  minute  vessels  the  blood  comes  in  inti- 
mate relation  with  the  substance  of  the  tissues,  making  them 
the  most  important  part  of  the  whole  circulatory  system. 
The  operations  of  secretion  and  the  conversion  of  the  nutrient 
materials  of  the  blood  into  bone,  muscle,  etc.,  are  performed 
in  these  vessels.     (Figs.  110,  111.) 

223.  The  Veins  thus  commencing  with  the  capillaries 
unite   into   larger  and    larger  veins,  converging  toward  the 


/ 


Describe  the  Pulmonary  Artery.    The  Capillaries.    Where  do  the  veins  commenco. 
Oive  the  course  of  the  veins. 


120 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


heart  till  the  final  union  in  two  trunks,  the  Ascending  and 
Descending  Venae  Cavce,  that  connect  with  the  right  auricle 
of  the  heart. 

■        ,  .  ^,        .  Fig.  112. 

Observation. — The  As- 
cending Vena  Cava  col- 
lects the  blood  from  the 
lower  extremities,  pel- 
vis and  abdomen,  and 
terminates  in  the  right 
ai  iricle  of  the  heart.  The 
Descending  Vena  Cava 
derives  its  branches  from 
the  head,  neck,  upper  ex- 
tremities and  walls  of  the 
thorax.  It  terminates  at 
the  upper  back  part  of  the 
right  auricle  of  the  heart. 
The  Aorta  and  Cavse  con- 
stitute the  large  vessels 
of  the  Systemic  or  General 
Circulation.     (Fig.  108.) 

224.  The  Pulmo- 
nary Veins  are  four 
in  number,  two  for 
each  lung.  They  com- 
mence with  the  capil- 
laries of  the  lungs  and 
converge  till  a  single 
trunk  is  formed  for 
each    lobe,  or    three 


Fig.  112.  The  Portal  System  of  Veins. — a,  Portal 
vein.  6,  Splenic  vein,  c,  Right  gastro-epiploic  vein. 
<Z,  Inferior  mesenteric  vein,  e,  Superior  mesenteric 
vein.  /,  Trunk  of  the  superior  mesenteric  artery.  1, 
trunks  for  the  right  Liver.  2,  stomach.  3,  Spleen.  4,  Pancreas.  5,  Duo- 
lun^"  and  two  for  the  denum.  6,  Ascending  colon;  the  transverse  colon  ia 
-     _         -  removed.    7,  Small  intestine.    8,  Descending  colon. 

left;    but   the   trunk 

from  the  middle  lobe  of  the  right  lung  joins  that  from  the 
upper  lobe  of  the  same  side,  and  the  four  mouths  discharge 
into  the  four  angles  of  the  left  auricle.  These  Veins,  with  the 
Pulmonary  Artery,  establish  the  Lesser  or  Pulmonic  Circulation. 


What  vessels  constitute  the  Systemic  Circiilation  ?    Describe  the  Pulmonary  Veins. 
What  constitutes  the  Pulmonic  Circulation? 


THE   CIRCULATORY   ORGANS.  121 

225.  The  Portal  Vein  (so  called  because  it  enters  the 
liver  by  a  kind  of  gateway  upon  its  under  surface)  is  a  short 
trunk  about  three  inches  in  length,  derived  from  the  converg- 
ence of  the  veins  of  the  stomach,  spleen,  pancreas  and  intes- 
tines; this  passes  into  the  liver,  where  it  divides  and  sub- 
divides, being  distributed  throughout  the  organ.  This  blood 
18  returned  from  the  liver  to  the  general  circulation  by  the 
he])atic  veins.     (Fig.  112.) 

35.  Physiology  of  the  Circulatory  Organs. — Necessity  for 
Circulation — For  the  Double  System  of  Circulation.  Plan  of  Systemic 
Circulation — Of  Pulmonic  Circulation — Their  Relation  to  Each  Other, 

226.  The  Tissues  are  so  constructed  that  their  vitality  de- 
pends upon  their  activity,  and  their  activity  upon  the  amount 
of  oxygen  and  nutritive  material  supplied,  the  oxygen  being 
essential  to  the  chemical  combinations,  without  which  there 
could  be  no  new  deposit  of  tissue  particles,  and  the  nutritive 
matter  being  necessary  to  supply  the  waste  produced  by  these 
chemical  and  vital  activities ;  hence  the  necessity  of  a  pneu- 
matic (air)  apparatus  for  providing  a  constant  and  sufficient 
supply  of  oxygen,  and  of  a  hydraulic  (fluids  in  motion)  ap- 
paratus for  conveying  the  prepared  nutriment  to  every  atom 
of  the  body,  and  also  to  remove  the  waste,  worn-out  particles. 
The  former  need  is  met  by  the  exquisite  mechanism  of  the 
lungs,  and  the  latter  by  the  no  less  refined  mechanism  of  the 
heart  and  blood-vessels.  The  two  apparatuses  are  brought  into 
use  and  harmonious  co-working  by  the  double  circulation  of  the 
blood ;  hence  the  necessity  of  the  double  heart.  (Figs.  107, 
115.) 

227.  From  the  left  ventricle  the  blood  is  forced  into  the 
aorta,  to  be  diffused  through  the  arteries  to  the  capillaries  of 
every  part  of  the  body ;  thence  it  is  returned  by  the  veins, 
through  the  vense  cavse,  to  the  right  auricle,  w-hich  delivers  it 
to  the  right  ventricle ;  this  completes  the  Systemic  Circulation. 
(Figs.  115,  116.) 

Describe  the  Portal  Vein.    Why  is   Circulation  necessary?    Why  a  doable  heart? 
Give  the  Systemic  Circulation. 

11  F 


122  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOl^OGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

228.  From  the  right  ventricle  the  blood  is  thrown  into  the 
pulmonary  artery,  and  through  its  branches  to  the  pulmonary 
capillaries,  thence  returned  by  the  pulmonary  veins,  which 
coalesce  into  four  trunks,  and  finally  enters  the  left  auricle^ 
which  immediately  pours  it  into  the  left  ventricle.  This  com- 
pletes the  Pulmonic  Circulationy  and  the  two  constitute  one 
complete  circuit  of  the  double  circulation.     (Figs.  113,  114.) 

229.  Both  circulations  are  carried  on  at  the  same  time — • 
that  is,  the  auricles  contract  and  dilate  simultaneously ;  the 

Fig.  113.  Fig.  114. 


Fig.  113.  A  Diagram. — 1,  Left  auricle.  2,  Right  auricle.  3,  Left  Tentricle.  4,  Kight 
ventricle.    5,  5,  Pulmonary  artery.    6,  Trachea. 

Fig.  114.  A  Diagram. — 1,  Right  auricle.  2,  Left  auricle.  3,  Right  ventricle.  4,  Left 
ventricle.    6,  5,  Right  and  left  pulmonary  veins.    6,  Trachea. 

same  is  true  of  the  ventricles,  whose  action  immediately  fol- 
lows that  of  the  auricles.  Hence,  at  the  same  instant,  by  the 
action  of  the  ventricles,  pure  blood  is  thrown  into  the  body 
and  impure  blood  into  the  lungs ;  and  at  the  same  instant 
the  right  auricles  receive  impure  blood  from  the  body  and 
the  left  auricle  pure  blood  from  the  lungs. 

^  36.  Hygiene  of  the  Circulatory  Organs. — Conditions  favoring 
Free  Circulation.     Observation. 

230.  A  natural  and  equal  temperature  sJiould  be  preserved. 
The   blood-vessels  are  contracted   by  cold ;    thus  a  chill  in 

Give  the  Pulmonic  Circulation.  What  is  said  of  the  contraction  and  dilatation  of  tho 
fttiricles  and  veiJricles?  What  is  the  effect  of  such  action?  Why  should  an  equal  tom- 
pcrature  be  preserved  ? 


THE   CIECULATORY   OUGANS. 


123 


any  part  of  the  body  drives  the  blood  to  other  parts.  The 
chilled  part  is  thus  weakened,  while  the  over-burdened  parts 
suffer  from  congestion.     If  the  surface  is  chilled,  the  blood 


Fig.  115. 


Fig.  116 


Fia.  115.  A  DiAGKAM. — 1,  Left  ventricle  of  the  heart.  2,  3,  Aorta.  5,  5,  Arteries  that 
extend  to  the  lower  extremities.    6,  6,  Arteries  of  the  neck.    7,  7,  Arteries  of  the  arms. 

Fig.  116.  A  Diagram. — 1.  Right  auricle  of  the  heart.  2,  3,  Large  veins  that  open  into 
the  right  auricle.  4,  4,  Veins  of  the  lower  extremities.  5, 5,  Veins  of  the  arms,  fi,  Veina 
of  the  neck.    The  arrows  show  the  direction  that  the  hlood  flows. 


is  thrown  upon  the  internal  vital  organs ;  hence  the  necessity 
of  warm  clothing  and  also  frequent  bathing,  which  favors  the 
free  action  of  the  vessels  of  the  skin. 


124  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

231.  The  clothing  should  be  loosely  worn.  Compression  of 
any  kind  i-mpedes  free  circulation.  Pressure  about  tlie  vital 
organs  is  especially  injurious.  Ligatures  used  to  retain  in 
place  any  article  of  apparel  should  be  elastic.  Tight  dress- 
ing of  the  neck  deprives  the  brain  of  its  due  amount  of  blood 
and  retards  the  free  return  of  venous  blood  from  this  organ— 
an  item  of  particular  importance  to  students,  public  speakers 
and  persons  predisposed  to  apoplexy  or  any  brain  disease. 

232.  Exercise  promotes  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  By  the 
action  of  the  muscles  the  blood  is  propelled  more  rapidly 
through  the  blood-vessels,  thus  promoting  a  vigorous  circula- 
tion in  the  extremities  and  skin.  The  best  stimulants  for  a 
pale  skin  and  cold  extremities  are  a  union  of  vigorous  mus- 
cular exercise  with  agreeable  mental  action,  and  systematic 
bathing  attended  by  thorough  friction. 

233.  The  quality  and  quantity  of  the  blood  modify  the  action 
of  the  heart  and  blood-vessels.  If  this  fluid  is  abundant  and 
pure,  the  circulatory  vessels  act  with  more  energy  than  when 
it  is  deficient  in  quantity  or  defective  in  quality. 

Observation. — If  blood  in  large  quantities  is  drawn  from  the  veins, 
the  heart  will  beat  feebly  and  the  pulse  become  weak.     A  similar  effect^ 
is  produced  when  the  blood  from  any  cause  becomes  vitiated. 


?  27.  CoMPAEATiVE  Anatomtj  (Angiologj). — Circulation  of  the  Blood 
in  Mammals — Birds — Reptiles — Amphibians — Fishes — The  Annulosa 
—Insects — The  Mollv^ca — The  Badiata. 

234.  The  blood  of  Mammals  is  red,  and  the  globules  gen- 
erally round.  In  the  Camel  they  are  elliptical.  The  hearts 
of  Mammals  have  two  auricles  and  two  ventricles.  The  heart 
in  quadrupeds  lies  on  the  middle  line  of  the  body,  and  not  a 
little  to  the  left  of  it,  as  in  man.  There  is  a  marked  peculiar- 
ity in  the  distribution  of  the  arteries  of  quadrupeds.  In  the 
long  necks  of  grazing  animals  there  is  found  a  large  number 
of  small  arterial  trunks,  which  are  termed  "  Wonder  Nets." 


Why  should  the  clothing  be  worn  loosely  ?  What  is  the  influence  of  exercise  on  cir- 
culation ?  What  is  «aid  of  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  blood  ?  Observation.  What 
is  said  of  the  blood  and  circulatory  organs  of  Mammals  ? 


THE  CIKCULATORY  ORGANS.  125 

Were  these  trunks  few  and  large,  as  in  man,  the  life  of  tho 
animal  would  be  endangered  by  the  constant  dependent  posi- 
tion of  the  head. 

235.  The  blood  of  Birds  has  the  highest  temperature  of  the 
vertebrate  animals.  It  is  richer  in  the  blood  cells  (corpuscles) 
than  in  man,  and  these  are  elliptical.     The 

Fio  117 

heart  of  birds  is  highly  muscular,  and  of  large 
size  in  proportion  to  the  bulk  of  the  body. 
The  aorta,  at  its  commencement,  divides 
into  three  large  branches,  of  which  the  first 
two  convey  the  blood  to  the  head  and  neck, 
wings,  and  muscles  of  the  chest ;  while  the 
third,  curving  downward  around  the  right  * 

1  I'l.ii  ,1  1  J.  ¥ia.  117.     Diagram 

bronchial    tube,    becomes    the    descending  ^^  ^„,  „^^^^  ^^  ^^^ 

aorta.     There  are  "Wonder  Nets"  in  vari-  mammal.— 7,    Right 

ous  parts  of  the  body,  especially  in  the  ar-  tlie.'' lo,' ^Pu?mln^* 

teries  supplying  the  brain,  eyes  and  legs.  artery.  12,  Pulmonic 

236.  In  Reptiles  the  blood  is  cold;  that  J«»°;  is. ^eft auricle 

-'  '  16,  Left  ventricle. 

is,  only  slightly  warmer  than  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  or  water  in  which  they  live,  having  fewer 
globules  and  lighter  in  color.  The  heart  consists  of  two  au- 
ricles and  one  ventricle.  The  arterial  blood  coming:  from 
the  lungs  is  received  into  the  left  auricle,  and  the  venous 
blood  from  all  parts  of  the  body  into  the  right  auricle ;  both 
are  poured  into  the  single  ventricle,  thus  mixing  the  pure 
and  impure  blood,  which  will  account  for  the  sluggishness 
of  these  animals.  A  portion  of  this  mixture  returns  by  the 
aorta  into  the  difierent  organs  it  is  intended  to  nourish,  while 
another  part  proceeds  to  the  lungs  by  vessels  springing  from 
the  ventricle  or  the  aorta.     (Fig.  119.) 

237.  The  Amphibians  are  cold-blooded  animals.  The  blood- 
globules  are  larger  than  in  mammals.  Their  circulation  is 
incomplete,  as  in  reptiles. 

238.  In  Fishes  the  blood  is  cold,  usually  red,  and  the  glob- 
ules  small.     The   heart  has  one  auricle  and  one  ventricle, 

What  is  said  of  the  blood  and  circulatory  organs  of  Birds  ?    Of  Reptiles  ?    Of  Am- 
phibians?   Of  Fishes? 

11* 


126  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE. 

containing  only  impure  blood  ;  this  blood  is  sent  to  the  gills, 
which  answer  the  purpose  of  lungs,  and  after  being  there  ex- 
posed to  ♦he  oxygen  of  air  contained  in  the  water  and  puri- 
fied, it  is  ^distributed  immediately  to  the  different  parts  of  the 

Fig.  118. 


Fig-  118.  Arteries  of  the  Trunk  of  a  Bird. — ^1,  The  aorta.  2,  The  vena  cava.  3,  A 
cerebral  artery.  The  small  lines  on  each  side  represent  the  arteries  and  veins  of  the 
Liangs. 

body  without  the  interposition  of  a  heart.     From  the  body 
the  blood  is  returned  to  the  auricle. 

239.  In  the  Annulosa  the  circulatory  system  is  incomplete, 

What  is  said  of  the  blood  and  circulatory  organs  in  the  sub-kingdom  Annulosa? 


THE   CIRCULATORY   ORGANS. 


127 


and  occasionally  altogether  absent.     In  general,  the  blood  is 
white  or  purple;  in  some  species  the  circulating  fluid  is  red, 
green,  blue  or  a  yellow- 
brown       In    the     class  Fig.  119.  Fig.  120. 
Crustacea,  of  which  the             ^^ 
Crab  and  Lobster  are 
examples,    there    is    a 
single  ventricle,  which 
receives  the  blood  from 
the  gills  and  propels  it 
to   other   parts   of  the 
body.     The    veins    are 
everywhere  replaced  by 
irregular- cavities  called 
venous    stiluses.     (Fig. 
121.) 

Insects  have  neither  arteries  nor  veins.  The  circulation, 
such  as  it  is,  is  animated  by  the  action  of  a  vessel  called  dor- 
sal, which  is  situated  above  the  digestive  tube.     (Fig.  122.) 


Fig.  119.  Diagram  op  the  Heart  op  the  Reptile. 
— 1,  Pericardium,  2,  Single  ventricle.  3,  Left  au- 
ricle, 4,  Right  auricle.  The  arrows  show  the  direc- 
tion of  the  blood, 

Fio.  120.  Diagram  of  the  Heart  of  the  Fish. — 
1,  Pericardium,  2,  The  yentricle  that  receives  the 
blood  from  the  body.  3,  The  ventricle  that  senda 
blood  to  the  gills. 


Fig.  121. 


Fig.  122. 


Fig.  121,  The  Heart  and  Arteries  of  a  Lobster. — 1,  The  heart.  2,  The  abdominal 
artery.    5, 5,  Venous  sinuses,     6,  The  branchiae  from  which  the  blood  returns  to  the  heart. 

Fig.  122.  Diagram  op  the  Circulation  of  an  Insect. — 1,  Dorsal  vessels  in  which  the 
blood  flows.  2.  The  lateral  currents.  The  arrows  show  the  outward  and  the  inward 
current. 

240.  In  the  higher  orders  of  the  Mollusca  the  circulation 
resembles  that  of  fishes.  The  heart  has  usually  a  ventricle, 
whence  spring  the  arteries  and  one  or  two  auricles  which 


What  is  said  of  the  blocd  and  circulatory  organs  in  Lobsters  and  Crabs?    In  Insects! 
In  the  Mollusca? 


128 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


carry  the  arterial  blood  from 
the  respiratory  apparatus, 
which  this  liquid  reaches  by 
venous  tubes  more  or  less 
complete.  The  blood  varies 
in  color,  and  is  generally  desti- 
tute of  globules. 

241.  In  the  Radiata  those 
highest  in  organization  have 
a  heart  and  vessels  correspond- 
ing in  some  degree  to  the  MoUusca.  In  the  Infusoria  (class 
Protozoa)  the  contractile  vesicle  appears  to  represent  a  rudi- 
mentary circulatory  system. 


Fig.  123.  The  Heart  and  Arteries  of  a 
Snail. — 2,  The  Stomach.  3,  Intestines.  5, 
Heart.    6,  Aorta.    7,  Pulmonary  artery 


<    .-'- 


Fie.  124. 


Fig.  125. 


FiQ.  124.  A.N  Ideal  Plan  of  the  Circulation  of  a  Fros. — 1,  The  pericardium.  2,  Th* 
single  Teutricle.  3,  The  right  auricle.  4,  The  left  auricle.  The  arrows  indicate  the 
direction  of  the  blood. 

Fig.  125.  An  Ideal  Plan  op  the  Circulation  of  a  Fish. — 1,  The  pericardium.  2,  The 
single  auricle.  3,  The  single  ventricle.  4,  The  vessel  that  conveys  the  blood  from  the 
ventricle  to  the  gills.  5,  The  vessel  that  conveys  the  blood  from  the  gills  to  the  body 
of  the  fish.  6,  The  vessel  that  conveys  the  blood  from  the  body  to  the  heart.  The  ar- 
roM'S  show  the  direction  of  the  blood. 


What  is  said  of  the  blood  and  circulatory  organs  in  the  Radiata?    In  the  Infusoria? 


THE  CIRCULATORY  ORGANS. 


129 


Fig.  126. 


Fia.  126.— 1,  The  left  auricle.  2,  The  right 
auricle.  3,  The  left  ventricle.  4,  The  right 
ventricle.  5, 6,  The  aorta,  7,  7,  The  femoral 
(leg)  arteries.  8,  8,  The  brachial  (arm)  arte- 
ries. 9,  9,  The  carotid  arteries.  10, 10,  The 
jugular  veins.  11,  11,  The  brachial  veins. 
12,  The  femoral  veins.  13, 14,  The  vena  cavas. 
15,  The  pulmonary  artery.  16,  16,  The  right 
and  left  pulmonary  arteries.  17, 17,  The  pul- 
monary veins.  18,  The  lacteals.  19, 19,  The 
thoracic  duct.  20,  20,  The  absorbents  of  the 
lower  extremities.  21,  21,  The  absorbenta 
of  the  upper  extremities.  22,  The  small  in- 
testiue. 


OF  THE  CIRCULATORY  SYSTEM. 

Classes,  Snb-kingdoms,  Divisions,  Anatomy,  Physi- 
ology-, Hygiene. 

State  the  Anatomy,  the  Physiology,  the  Hygiene  of  the  Circulatory  Sj'sttra.  Human 
and  Comparative. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

ASSIMFLA  TION, 

I  •8.  Assimilation. — Changes  included  under  Secondary  Assimilatum. 
Secretion.     Excretion.     The  Kidneys.    Animal  Heat. 

242.  As  before  stated,  the  processes  by  which  food  ia 
changed  into  chyle  and  then  into  bk)od  may  be  included 
under  Primary  Assimilation.  The  changes  which  convert 
portions  of  the  blood  into  solid  tissue  may  be  termed  Second' 
ary  Assimilation. 

243.  Secondary  Assimilation  (Nutrition  of  the  Organs 
and  Tissues)  consists  of  the  following  stages :  First,  A  nutri- 
tive fluid  (plasma)  exudes  from  the  blood  through  the  coats 
of  the  capillaries,  filling  the  finest  spaces  of  the  tissues  be- 
tween the  capillary  networks,  and  bathing  all  the  elementary 
parts  of  these  tissues.  The  nature  of  this  fluid  is  the  same  in 
all  parts  of  the  system. 

Second,  The  nutritive  process  consists  in  the  exercise  of  a 
certain  selective  act  by  the  elementary  parts  of  tissues  and 
organs,  enabling  them  to  appropriate  to  themselves  such  por- 
tions of  the  nutritive  fluid  as  are  suitable,  either  with  or  with- 
out further  change,  to  renew,  particle  by  particle,  their  worn- 
out  substance. 

Third,  The  result  of  the  act  of  assimilation  is  to  leave  a 
residual  fluid  in  the  interspaces  of  the  tissue-elements  outside 
the  capillary  vessels.  The  nature  of  this  fluid  must  differ  in 
the  different  tissues,  inasmuch  as  different  tissues  make  differ- 
ent appropriations. 

Fourth,  The  final  residuum,  or  that  which  is  not  taken  up 
by  the  tissues  or  lymphatics,  is  probably  taken  up  by  the 
venous  capillaries. 

Distinguish  between  Primary  and  Secondary  Assimilation.    State  the  first  stage  in  the 
uutrition  of  tho  organs  and  tissues.    What  is  the  second?    The  third?    The  fourth? 

130 


ASSIMILATION.  131 

244.  Asshnilation  is  the  formation  of  the  tissues  from  the 
elements  of  the  food.  Secretion  is  the  separation  from  the 
blood  of  materials  in  a  more  or  less  fluid  condition  through  a 
Gland  or  Memhrmie.  After  assimilation  or  secretion  the 
products  are  discharged  from  the  ducts  of  the  glands  or  the 
surfaces  of  the  membranes,  and  are  used  for  certain  purposes 
in  the  animal  economy,  or  excreted  from  the  body. 

245.  The  Secreting  Glands  are  the  liver,  the  pancreas, 
the  salivary  and  the  lachrymal  glands ;  the  true  mucous  glands 
of  the  nose,  mouth,  fauces,  pharynx,  oesophagus,  duodenum, 
and  those  of  the  skin,  some  of  the  glands  of  the  stomach  and 
intestines  and  the  sebaceous  glands. 

246.  The  Secreting  Membranes  are  the  mucous,  which 
lines  all  those  passages  that  communicate  with  the  air;  the 
serous,  which  covers  the  organs  of  the  body  not  exposed  to 
the  air,  and  also  lines  the  cavity  in  which  those  organs  are 
contained ;  and  the  sj^novial  membranes,  which  compose  a 
part  of  a  joint. 

247.  With  the  final  residuum  are  mingled  the  worn-out 
particles  of  waste  from  the  tissues,  which  also  enter  the  ven- 
ous blood  to  be  thrown  off*  in  the  form  of  excretions. 

248.  Excretion  is  effected  by  glands  only,  and  the  ex- 
hausted, useless  particles  are  expelled  from  the  blood  and 
thrown  out  of  the  system.  The  excretory  glands  are  the 
kidneys,  the  sweat  glands  of  the  skin,  to  a  certain  extent  the 
liver,  the  sebaceous  glands  of  the  skin,  and  lastly,  the  lungs, 
which  throw  off"  carbonic  acid  from  the  blood. 

249.  The  Kidneys  lie  one  on  each  side  of  the  spinal  column. 
Their  shape  is  that  of  a  bean,  and  their  color  a  brownish  red. 
The  substance  of  the  kidney  is  mainly  composed  of  secretory 
tubes.  In  these  small  tubes  or  tubules  the  urine  is  secreted. 
The  duct  to  the  bladder  is  called  Ureter,  The  kidneys  receive 
a  very  large  supply  of  blood,  and  they  are  the  only  glands  that 
throw  off"  certain  injurious  substances  from  the  blood. 

What  is  Assimilation  ?  What  is  Secretion  ?  Name  the  Secreting  Glands  and  Mem- 
branes. What  is  mixed  with  the  venous  blood  ?  How  is  Excretion  effected?  Name  the 
Excretory  organs.    Describe  the  kidneys.    What  is  their  office  ? 


132 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


Observation. — The  retention  of  the  secretion  of  the  kidneys  should 
never  be  allowed  by  the  young  or  the  old,  the  healthy  or  the  diseased, 
as  suppression  of  the  secretion  of  these  glands  immediately  affects  the 
whole  system,  especially  the  nervous  centres.  Both  the  quantity  and 
color  of  this  secretion  indicate  the  condition  or  health  of  the  body. 
Fig.  127.  Fig.  128. 


Fig.  127.  Longitddinai  Section  ok  a  Kidnet. — ^1,  2,  3,  Parts  of  the  Kidneys.  4,  Pelvis. 
5,  Ureter.  6,  Renal  artery.  7,  Renal  vein.  8,  Branches  of  the  latter  vessels  in  the 
kidney. 

Fig.  128.  Diagram  of  the  Stecoture  op  the  Kidneys. — 1,  Tubules  or  minute  tubes.  2, 
Enlargement  of  a  tubule  at  its  extremity.  3,"  Branches  of  the  real  artery  ending  in  vessels 
which  enter  the  enlargements  as  seen  at  4,  5.  6,  Knot  of  blood-vessels  freed  from  its  in- 
vestment. 7,  Veins  emerging  from  the  knots.  8,  Plexus  formed  by  the  latter  veins 
among  the  tubules,  from  which  plexus  originate  the  branches  of  the  renal  vein. 

250.  The  nutritive  changes  going  on  within  the  animal 
body  is  the  source  of  its  heat.  In  man  and  most  mammals 
the  interior  of  the  body  is  about  100°,  whether  in  the  torrid 
zone  or  within  the  polar  circle.  The  external  parts  may  be 
frost-bitten,  still  the  internal  temperature  or  Animal  Heat  is 
nearly  invariable. 

Observation. — There  is  a  difference  in  the  heat-producing  powers  of 
different  animals.  In  the  young  of  all  animals  the  temperature  is  a 
few  degrees  higher  than  in  the  adult,  and  breathing  is  correspondingly 
more  frequent,  but  the  sensibility  to  cold  is  much  greater. 

What  is  the  source  of  the  heat  of  the  body  ?  What  is  the  temperature  of  the  body  ? 
Why  do  young  animals  reed  more  protection  or  clothing  than  those  of  mature  growth! 


DIVISION  III. 

SENSOKIAL  APPAKATUS. 

251.  In  the  two  preceding  Divisions  the  tissues  and  organs 
directly  involved  in  the  movements  of  the  body,  and  those 
most  intimately  connected  with  the  preparation  and  assimila- 
tion of  nutrient  material,  have  been  briefly  described.  In 
the  present  Division  we  consider  the  organs  through  which 
is  manifested  the  subtle  power  that  controls  these  motions 
and  processes,  establishes  telegraphic  communication  between 
the  several  parts  of  the  body  and  brings  it  into  important 
relations  with  the  external  world.  These,  taken  collectively, 
we  name  the  Sensorial  Apparatus.  The  organs  of  this 
apparatus  are  the  Brain,  Spinal  Cord  and  Nerves. 


CHAPTER  X. 

NEEVOUS  SYSTEM. 


I  20.  Two  forms  of  Nervous  Tissue.  Classification  of  the  Ganglions. 
The  Nerves.  The  Spinal  Cord.  The  Medulla  Oblongata.  The  Cer- 
ebrum. The  Cerebellum.  Membranes  of  the  Brain — The  Nerves. 
Classification  of  Cerebro-Spinal  Nerves— Of  Cranial  Nerves — Of  Spinal 
Nerves.     Sympathetic  System. 

252.  Nervous  Tissue  presents  two  characters — one,  cell- 
like and  gray  in  color,  arranged  in  masses  called  Centres  or 
Ganglions,  being  the  originating,  active  centres  of  nerve- 
force;  the  other,  fibrous  and  white,  arranged  in  threads  or 
small  cords  called  Nerves,  which  are  simple  conductors  of 
nerve-force. 


Name  the  organs  of  the  Sensorial  Apparatus.    What  two  characters  does  Nervotw  Ti* 
■t  9  present?    Give  the  arrangement  and  names  of  each. 

12  133 


134 


ANATO^IY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


Fig.  129. 


253.  The  Ganglions  (Ganglia),  a  collection  of  nerve-cells, 
may  be  arranged  in  two  great  systems,  the  Cerebro-Spinal 
(brain  and  spinal  cord)  and  the  Sympathetic  (ganglionic)  with 
their  nerves.     (Fig.  129.) 

254.  The  Cerebro-Spinal  system  commences  with  thaft 
portion  of  nervous  matter  which  is  enclosed  in  a  long  canal 
within  the  spinal  column,  extending  from  the  second  verte- 
bra of  the  loins  to  the  base  of  the  skull,  and  known  as  the 
Spinal  Cord. 

255.  The  Spinal 
Cord  (marrow)  is 
nearly  round  and 
double,  the  two 
halves  connected  by 
a  narrow  bridge 
(commissure)  of  the 
same  substance  as 
the  cord,  which  is 
soft  and  white  ex- 
ternally, but  gray- 
ish within.  The 
amount  of  white 
substance  exceeds 
the  gray.  A  vertical  fissure  partly  separates  the  cord  into 
two  halves,  and  each  lateral  half  consists  of  two  separate 
bundles  of  fibres,  which  are  called  the  Anterior  and  Posterior 
aolumns.  As  the  cord  enters  the  cavity  of  the  skull  it  becomes 
greatly  enlarged,  and  receives  the  name  of  Medul'la  Oblon- 
ga'ta.     (Figs.  130,  135.) 

256.  The  Medulla  Oblongata  preserves  the  connection 
between  the  spinal  cord  and  the  brain.  Its  columns  are  con- 
tinuous with  those  of  the  cord,  but  contain  a  larger  quantity 
of  gray  substance.     Motory  impressions  are  carried  through 


Fig.  129.  Transverse  Section  of  the  Spinal  Cord. — 1, 2 
Spinal  nerves  of  right  and  left  sides,  showing  their  two 
roots.  3,  3,  Origin  of  posterior  root.  4,  4,  Origin  of  an- 
terior root,  with  the  commissure  or  bridge  between  the 
two  halves.    5,  Ganglion  of  posterior  root. 


What  are  Ganglions?  IIow  arranged ?  Where  does  the  Cerebro-Spinal  system  coni- 
meme?  Describe  the  S|  "nal  Cord.  Give  its  form  after  it  enters  the  skull.  Describe) 
the  Medulla  Oblongata. 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 


135 


Fig.  130. 


i\^'= 


its  anterior,  and  sensitive  impression  its  posterior  columns. 
No  other  part  of  the  body  is  so  immediately  important  to 
the  maintenance  of  life  as  the  Medulla  Oblongata. 

257.  The  Brain  is  the  large  mass  of  nervous  tissue  within 

the  skull-bones.  It  consists  of  two  parts, 
the  Cer'ehrum  (large  brain),  the  Cere- 
bel'lum  (small  brain). 

258.  The  Cerebrum,  or  larger  por. 
tion  of  the  brain,  is  composed  of  a  whit- 
ish substance,  with  an  irregular  border 
of  gray  matter  around  its  edges.  It  is 
divided  into  two  hemispheres,  and  each 
hemisphere  has  three  lobes,  and  each  lobe 
has  eminences  and  depressions  which 
produce  those  winding  inequalities  called 
convolutions.     (Fig.  130.) 

259.  The  Cerebellum  is  also  com- 
posed of  white  and  gray  matter,  but  the 
latter  constitutes  the  largest  portion. 
The  white  matter  is  so  arranged  that 
when  cut  vertically  the  appearance  of 
the  trunk  and  branches  of  a  tree  (ar'bor 
vi'tce)  is  presented.     (Fig.  132.) 

260.  The  brain  is  surrounded  by  three 
membranes.  The  external  membrane 
(Dura  Hater)  is  thick  and  firm;  the 
middle  (Arachnoid)  is  thin,  and  looks 
somewhat  like  a  spider's  web;  the  inner 
(Pia  Mater)   consists  of  a  network  of 

(.rr.  ^^  I.   •  ^    q   mu    ,,      blood-vessels.      These    membranes    are 

(small  brain).    3,   The  Me- 

duiia  Oblongata.  4,  4,  The    prolonged  SO  as  to  form  a  sheath  to  the 

Bpinal  cord  in  its  canal.  soiual  COrd 

261.  We  find  distributed  throughout  the  body  small  white 
threads,  or  nerve-filaments,  which  interlace  and  loop  them- 


FiG.  130.  A  Section  oe  the 
Brain  and  Spinal  Column. 
— 1,  The  cerebrum  (large 
brain).     2,  The   cerebellum 


Describe  the  Brain.  Describe  the  Cerebrum.  What  are  irregularities  of  its  surfaco 
called?  Describe  the  Cerebellum,  Speak  of  the  membranes  of  the  Brain.  Describ« 
the  Nerve-filaments. 


136 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 


Fig.  131. 


selves  with  the  various  tissues,  reaching  every  fibre  of  a  mus- 
cle, the  papillae  of  the  skin  and  all  the  glandular  organs. 
From  these  points  they  approach  each  other,  uniting  into 
little  bundles  or  fibres,  and  then  into  larger  bundles,  till  they 
are  of  sufficient  size  to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye,  when  they 
constitute  a  Nerve. 

The  filaments  do  not  blend  with  each  other,  but  remain 
distinct  from  their  origin  to  their  termination.  Like  the 
fibres  of  a  muscle,  they 
are  bound  together  and 
protected  by  a  covering 
of  tissue  called  its  Neu- 
rilem'ma  or  sheath, 
which  also  contains  the 
blood-vessels  for  the  nu- 
trition of  the  nerve. 

Observation, — The  nerves 
have  no  power  of  originat- 
ing impressions.  The  Sen- 
sory nerves  do  not  originate 
in  the  brain ;  they  are  stim- 
ulated by  external  agents, 
and  the  impression  is  car- 
ried from  the  extremities 
to  the  nervous  centres.  The 
Motory  nerves  are  stimu- 
lated by  the  Will  or  some 
other  force  generated  in  the 
nervous  centres  and  con- 
veyed from  them  to  the  distant  parts  of  the  extremities,  chiefly  the 
muscles. 

262.  The  Cerebko-spinal  Nerves  are  called  Cranial 
when  they  pass  directly  from  the  brain  through  the  openings 
in  the  skull ;  and  Spinal  when  they  pass  through  the  openings 
of  the  spinal  column. 

263.  The  Cranial  Nerves  are  arranged  in  twelve  pairs, 

When  are  they  called  Nerves?  What  is  said  of  the  blending  of  the  nerve-Slamentsf 
Give  the  name  of  the  nerve-sheath.  What  does  it  contain?  Observation,  Give  the 
arrangement  of  the  Cerebro-Spinal  Nerves.    How  are  the  Cranial  Nerves  arranged? 


Fig.  131.  Diagbam  op  Human  Brain  in  Vertical 
Section,  showing  the  situation  of  the  different  gan- 
glia and  the  course  of  the  fibres. — 1,  Olfactory  gan- 
glion. 2,  Hemisphere.  3,  Corpus  striatum.  4,  Optic 
thalamus.  5,  Tubercula  quadrigemina.  6,  Cere- 
bellum. 7,  Oanglion  of  tuber  annulare.  8,  Gan- 
glion of  medulla  oblongata. 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  137 

and  these  in  three  groups  according  to  their  functions,  as 
Sensory,  Motory  and  Mixed. 

Name.  Destination. 

1st  pair.  .Olfactory Mucous  membrane  of  nasal  passages. 

2d      "   ..Optic Retina  of  eye. 

8th    "   ..Auditory Internal  ear. 


^     ,    „  ,  f  The  muscles  of  eye,  excepting  external  rectui 

3d    pair.  .Oculo-Motor J  ,         ,,        "^  '         *-      & 

I     and  trochle;ir. 

4th  "  ..Patheticus Trochlear  muscle  of  eye. 

6th  "  ..Abducent External  rectus  of  eye,  turning  eye  upward. 

7th  "  ..PortibDura Different  muscles  of  face,  giving  expression. 

Jlth  "  .  .Spinal  Accessory Muscles  of  neck. 

12th  **  . .  Hypo-glossal Muscles  of  tongue. 


{Motor  branches  to  muscles  used  in  mastication, 
Sensory    "         to  the  teeth,  tongue  and  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  face.    ( Fig.  135.) 

9th    "   .  .Glosso-pharyngeal Mucous  membrane  of  the  tongue  and  throat. 

Motor  branches  to  the  pharynx,  larynx,  tra- 
chea, lungs,  heart,  oesophagus,  stomach  and 
intestines. 
Sensory  to  ditto. 


10th     "   ..Pneumogastric, 


264.  The  Spinal  Nerves  are  arranged  in  thirty-one  pairs. 
Each  of  these  nerves  arises  by  two  roots — an  anterior  or  Motor 
root,  springing  from  the  anterior  columns  of  the  spinal  cord, 
and  a  posterior  or  Sensitive  root,  from  the  posterior  columns 
of  the  spinal  cord.  Both  roots  unite  into  one  trunk,  form- 
ing the  spinal  nerve,  which  passes  out  of  the  spinal  column 
through  its  openings.     The  Spinal  Nerves  are  divided  into — 

Cervical  (Neck) 8  pairs. 

Dorsal  (Back) 12     " 

Lumbar  (Loins) 5      *' 

Sacral  (Pelvis) 6     " 

Observation. — A  singular  feature  of  the  Spinal  Nerves  in  their  con- 
nection with  the  brain  through  the  spinal  cord  is  the  crossing  (decus- 
sation) of  the  Motor  and  Sensitive  fibres  of  the  spinal  cord.  Hence, 
the  nerves  of  the  right  side  of  the  body  are  connected  with  the  left  side 

How  are  the  Spinal  Nerves  arranged  ?     State  a  singular  feature  of  the  Spinal  Nerves. 
12* 


138  AXATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY    AND   HYGIENE. 

of  the  brain,  and  those  of  the  left  side  of  the  body  with  the  right  side 
of  the  brain. 

265.  The  Sympathetic  System  is  double,  consisting  of 
two  chains  of  ganglions,  one  on  each  side  of  the  spinal  col- 
umn, running  through  the  deep  parts  of  the  neck  into  the 
chest  and  abdomen.  These  ganglions  are  composed  of  nerve-' 
cells,  and  communicate  with  each  other,  with  the  spinal  cord 
and  with  the  internal  organs — as  the  heart,  lungs,  stomach, 

Fig.  132. 


4^ 

Fig.  132.  A  Vertical  Section  of  the  Cekkurum,  Ckkkbellum  anl»  Medulla  Oblongata, 
eliowing  the  relation  of  the  cranial  iif  ives  at  their  origin. — I,  The  cerebrum,  2,  The  cer- 
ebellum with  its  arbor  vitae  represented.  3,  The  medulla  oblongata.  4,  The  spinal  cord. 
5,  The  corpus  callosum.  6,  The  first  pair  of  nerves,  7,  The  second  pair.  8,  The  eye. 
9,  The  third  pair  of  nerves.  10,  The  fourth  pair.  11,  The  fifth  pair.  12,  The  sixth  pair. 
13,  The  seventh  pair.  14,  The  eighth  pair.  15,  The  ninth  pair.  16,  The  tenth  pair.  17, 
The  eleventh  pair.    18,  The  twelfth  pair.    20,  Spinal  nerves.    21,  The  tentorium. 

liver,  pancreas,  intestines  and  kidneys.  Thus,  the  various 
parts  of  the  body  are  associated  with  each  other  by  a  nervous 
apparatus  which  is  only  indirectly  connected  with  the  brain 
and  spinal  cord.     (Fig.  135.) 

A  peculiarity  of  the  Sympathetic  Nerves  is  that  they  follow 
the  distribution  of  the  blood-vessels.     Starting  from  the  heart, 

Describe  the  Sympathetic  System.    What  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  Sympathetic  Nerves? 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 


139 


they  envelop  the  large  ves- 
sels with  a  close  network 
called  a  plexus."^ 

Observation. — In  all  parts  of 
the  body  these  nerves  accompa- 
ny the  arteries  which  supply  the 
different  organs,  and  form  net- 
works around  them  which  take 
the  names  of  the  organs — as  the 
hepatic  plexus,  splenic  plexus, 
mesenteric  plexus,  etc. 

§  30.  Physiology  of  the  Ner- 
vous System. — Classification 
of  Nerve-centres — Ideational— 
Sensational  — Reflex — Spinal — - 
Organic  Centres. 

266.  The  Nervous  Sys- 
tem, though  made  up  of  sev- 
eral parts — as  the  Brain, 
Spinal  Cord  and  Sympathetic 
Ganglion — yet  each  within 
certain  limits  performs  dis- 
tinct functions.  To  the  hem- 
ispheres of  the  Cerebrum, 
particularly  the  gray  matter 
of  its  irregular  border,  may 
be  ascribed  the  mental  fac- 
ulties— as  Memory,  Judg- 
ment and  Reason.  These 
ganglions  or  nerve-centres 
we  call  Primary  or  Idea- 
tlonal. 

267.  To  the  gray  matter 
of    the    Cerebellum    and 


Fig.  133. 


LEBELLl 


Fig,  133.  A  Back  View  of  the  Brain  and 
Spinal  Cord. — 1,  The  Cerebrum.  2,  The 
cerebellum.  3,  The  spinal  cord.  4,  Nervea 
of  the  face.  5,  The  brachial  plexus  of 
nerves.  6,  7,  8,  9,  Nerves  of  the  arm.  10 
Nerves  that  pass  under  the  ribs.  11,  The 
lumbar  plexus  of  nerves.  12,  Tiie  sacral 
plexus  of  nerves,  13, 14,  15,  16,  Nerves  of 
the  lower  limbs. 


What  is  a  plexus?    What  is  said  of  the  functions  of  the  different  parts  of  the  Nervoiii 
System?    What  is  ascribed  to  the  Cerebrum?    What  name  is  given  to  this  centre? 


*  Lat.,  plecto,  to  intermingle. 


140 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


other  ganglions  at  the  base  of  the  brain  is  ascribed  the  seat 
of  the  higher  and  special  senses,  as  sight  and  hearing.  These 
ganglions  are  called  the  Sensorial  Centres. 

268.  The  Spinal  Cord  is  both  a  conductor  of  nervous  im- 
pressions and  a  nervous  centre  of  reflex  actioii.  Let  an  external 
agent  touch  any  part  of  the  surface  of  the  body,  the  nervous 
stimulus  is  first  conveyed  inward  by  the  fibres  of  the  sensory 
nerves ;  it  arrives  at  the  spinal  cord  by  the  posterior  or  back 
roots,  and  reaches  the  gray  matter  in  its  central  parts,  which 
receives  the  nervous  impression  and  instantly  converts  it  into 
a  motor  impulse;  it  is  then  conveyed  or  reflected  outward  along 
the  motor  fibres  of  the  anterior  or  front  roots  to  the  muscles. 

Such    action    is    called 
^16. 134.  the  Reflex  Action  of  the 

Nervous  System.  By 
this  means  a  communi- 
cation is  established  be- 
tween the  difierent  or- 
gans. This  communi- 
cation is  never  direct, 
out  from  one  organ  in- 
ward to  the  nervous  centre,  then  outward  to  another  organ ; 
so  are  the  different  functions  associated  and  exercised  for  the 
com m or  good  of  the  whole.  These  may  be  called  the  Reflex, 
Motory  or  Spinal  Centres. 

269.  The  Sympathetic  or  Organic  Centres  are  not  well 
understood,  but  the  distribution  of  their  nerves  would  indi- 
cate that  they  exercise  a  controlling  influence  over  the  invol- 
untary functions  of  digestion,  absorption,  circulation  and  as- 
similation. These  organic  centres,  being  connected  with  the 
various  organs  by  sensitive  and  motor  nerves,  are  capable  of 
an  independent  reflex  action.  They  are  also  connected  with 
the  cerebro-spinal  system,  and  are  more  or  less  assisted  by 
and  subordinate  to  it.     In  health  the  brain  takes  no  cogni- 


FiQ.  13i.  Nerve-filaments,  decussing  with  their 
eheath. 


What  is  ascribed  to  the  Cerebellum  ?  What  name  is  given  to  this  centre  ?  Nante  the 
functions  of  the  Spinal  Cord.  What  is  Reflex  Action?  Give  the  name  of  the  centre* 
Speak  of  the  Sympathetic  or  Organic  Centres.    What  is  said  of  their  connection  ? 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 


141 


zance  of  their  action  ;  when  dis- 
eased, however,  the  centres  re- 
port to  the  highest  authority  by 
means  of  cramps  and  other  se- 
verely acute  pains. 

Observation  1. — Each  nerve-centre 
acts  independently  within  certain 
limits,  but  beyond  these  limits  it  is 
Bubordinate  to  the  next  higher;  thus, 
the  Organic  Centres  are  subordinate 
to  the  Reflex  or  Spinal  Centres,  the 
Keflex  to  the  Sensorial,  and  all  to 
the  Ideational  or  Supreme  Centres. 
In  each  centre  the  individual  cells 
probably  difler  in  rank,  some  having 
a  liigher  dignity,  some  a  lower,  but 
each  its  special  appointment,  its  as- 
signed duty. 

2. — The  mind  is  closely  united,  and 
yet  it  is  distinct  from  the  body  through 
which  it  acts  (dependent  for  its  man- 
ifestations, but  independent  in  es- 
sence). So  intimate  is  the  union  that 
the  body  exercises  a  powerful  influ- 
ence in  leading  us  upward  into  a  true 
and  higher  life,  or  downward  into  a 
low  and  sensual  existence.  What 
this  influence  shall  be  depends  some- 
what upon  inherited  organization,  but 
more  upon  education.  Accepting  the 
llieory  already  advanced  as  at  least  il- 
lustrative, we  see  that  if  the  thoughts, 
feelings  and  desires  are  pure  and  true 
and  good,  their  impressions  remain- 
ing in  the  nerve-cells  are  of  the  same 
character,  and  tend  to  give  a  right 
direction  tc  the  future  activities  of 
these  cells.  If  the  thoughts,  feelings 
and  wishes   are  evil  in  nature,  the 


Fig.  135. 


Fig.  135.    The   Sympathetic  Gangli- 
ons AND  THEIR  CONNECTION  WITH   OtHER 

Nerves. — A,  A,  A,  The  semilunar  gau- 
glion  and  solar  plexus.  D,  D,  D,  The 
thoracic  (chest)  ganglions.  E,  E,  The 
external  and  internal  branches  of  the 
thoracic  ganglions.  G,  H,  The  right 
and  left  coronary  (heart)  plexus.  I,  N, 
Q,  The  inferior,  middle  and  superior 
cervical  (neck)  ganglions.  1,  The  renal 
plexus  of  nerves.  2,  The  lumbar  (loin) 
ganglions.  3,  Their  internal  branches. 
4,  Their  external  branches.  5,  The 
aortic  plexus  of  nerves. 


What  is  the  relation  between  the  sympathetic  nerves  and  the  brain?    Observation  1. 
Speak  of  the  relation  of  the  mind  to  the  body. 


142  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 

impressions  will  also  be  evil,  inclining  to  evil  activities  in  the  future. 
When  we  resist  a  temptation  to  wrong  action,  then  we  not  only  avoid 
the  particular  evil,  but  lay  up  that  which  will  render  the  next  resist- 
ance easier  and  more  natural.  If  we  yield  to  the  temptation,  we  are 
not  only  guilty  of  the  particular  wrong,  but  lay  up  that  which  will 
make  resistance  more  difficult  or  yielding  more  easy  and  natural  for 
the  future.  When  a  man  sets  his  heart  to  do  right,  all  his  physical  being 
struggles  to  give  him  aid ;  and  when  he  sets  his  heart  to  do  wrong,  its 
energies  are  expended  in  dragging  him  downward. 

3. — The  visible  impress  which  the  workings  of  the  mind  leave  upon 
the  body  is  worthy  our  notice.  The  character  of  the  man  is  declared 
by  the  lines  of  his  muscles,  which  tell  no  lies.  Especially  is  this  true 
of  the  muscles  of  his  face.  Let  him  narrow  his  soul  by  penuriousness, 
become  the  victim  of  rasping  jealousy,  wear  the  nettles  of  envy  against 
his  heart,  or  be  the  slave  of  defiling  lust,  and  in  spite  of  any  natural 
comeliness  or  studied  concealment,  his  true  character  will  be  proclaimed 
to  all  who  have  learned  aught  of  the  language  of  the  muscles.  "  Be 
sure  your  sin  will  find  you  out,"  says  He  who  has  made  the  fleshly 
lineaments  to  reveal  the  most  hidden  vice.  The  more  secret  the 
viciousness.  the  deeper  is  the  impress.  But  if  the  spirit  of  evil  thus 
leaves  the  traces  of  its  blackened  pen  upon  the  face,  the  spirit  of  good- 
ness writes  thereon  in  no  less  legible  characters  of  light.  Purity  of 
heart,  nobleness  of  purpose,  restfulness  of  soul,  soften,  irradiate,  spirit- 
ualize the  outer  man,  giving  a  higher  beauty  than  that  of  form  or  com- 
plexion, even  to  him  who  is  wrinkled  by  years,  bowed  by  infirmity  and 
scarred  by  the  battles  of  life.    U 

^  31.  Hygiene  of  the  Nervous  System. — Two  Classes  of  Agencies 
affecting  the  Health  of  the  Nervous  System..  Natural  Heritage.  Im- 
portance of  the  Physical  Agency — Air — Diet — Exercise  and  Sleep. 
The  effect  of  Mental  Impressions  on  the  Body.  Mental  Exercise.  Rec- 
reation and  Amusement.  Harmonious  Development  of  the  Different 
Mental  Powers. 

270.  In  considering  the  Hygiene  of  the  nervous  system  it  is 
necessary  to  have  reference  both  to  physical  and  mental  agen- 
cies. The  highest  health  and  vigor  of  the  nervous  system 
doubtless  require — 1st,  A  sound  nervous  organization  by  in- 
heritance ;  2d,  A  nutrition  equal  to  the  demands  of  repair 
and  growth ;  3d,  The  harmonious  action  of  the  various  m(!n- 
tal  powers. 

Speak  of  the  visible  impress  of  the  mind  upon  the  muscles  of  the  face.  What  agenciea 
affect  tho  health  of  the  nervous  system  ?    Name  the  requirements  of  its  health  and  vigor- 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  143 

271.  Everyday  observation  shows  that  children  inherit  not 
only  the  features,  but  the  physical,  mental  and  moral  consti- 
tution, of  their  parents.  Even  those  utterly  ignorant  of  the 
laws  of  transmission  are  wont  to  estimate  the  child  according 
to  its  family;  favorably,  if  of  a  "good  family"  or  ''good 
blood;"  unfavorably,  if  of  a  "bad  family"  or  "bad  blood." 

Every  formation  of  body,  internal  and  external,  all  intel- 
lectual endowments  and  aptitudes,  and  all  moral  qualities, 
are  or  may  be  transmissible  from  parent  to  child.  If  one 
generation  is  missed,  the  qualities  may  appear  in  the  next 
generation.  It  is  important  to  notice  that  not  only  the 
natural  constitution  of  the  parents  may  be  inherited,  but  their 
acquired  habits  of  life,  whether  virtuous  or  vicious,  but  espe- 
cially is  this  true  of  vice.  Even  when  the  identical  vice  does 
not  appear,  there  is  a  morbid  organization  and  a  tendency  to 
some  vice  akin  to  it.  Not  only  is  the  evil  tendency  trans- 
mitted, but  what  was  the  simple  practice,  the  voluntarily 
adopted  and  cherished  vice  of  the  parent,  becomes  the  pas- 
sion, the  overpowering  impulse,  of  the  child. 

Illustration  1. — M.  Morel  sketches  the  history  of  four  generations  as 
follows :  "  First  Generation. — The  father  was  an  habitual  drunkard,  and 
was  killed  in  a  public-house  brawl.  Second  Generation. — The  son  in- 
herited his  father's  habits,  which  gave  rise  to  attacks  of  mania,  termi- 
nating in  paralysis  and  death.  Third  Generation. — The  grandson  was 
strictly  sober,  but  full  of  hypochondriacal  and  imaginary  fears  of  perse- 
cutions, etc.,  and  had  homicidal  tendencies.  Fourth  Generation. — The 
fourth  in  <iescent  had  very  limited  intelligence,  and  had  an  attack  of 
madness  when  sixteen  years  old,  terminating  in  stupidity  nearly  amount- 
ing to  idiocy ;  with  him  the  race  probably  becomes  extinct." 

2. — Says  a  learned  physician,  after  long  and  close  observation  of  the 
evil  effects  of  tobacco :  "  If  the  evil  ended  with  the  individual  who,  by 
the  indulgence  of  a  pernicious  custom,  injures  his  own  health  and  im- 
pairs his  faculties  of  mind  and  body,  he  might  be  left  to  his  enjoyment, 
his  fool's  paradise,  unmolested.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case.  In  no 
instance  is  the  sin  of  the  father  more  strikingly  visited  upon  the  chil- 
dren than  in  the  sin  of  tobacco-smoking.  The  enervation,  the  hysteria, 
the  insanity,  the  dwarfish  deformities,  the  consumption,  the  suffering 


What,  in  addition  to  the  features  of  parents,  do  children  inherit?    May  acquired  habits 
be  transmitted?     Illustrations. 


144  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

lives  and  early  deaths  of  the  children  of  inveterate  smokers  bear  ample 
testimony  to  the  feebleness  and  unsoundness  of  the  constitution  trans- 
mitted by  this  pernicious  habit." 

3. — Should  we  trace  the  effects  of  the  whole  list  of  vices,  it  would  be 
with  equally  sad  results ;  even  of  the  great  love  of  money-getting,  the 
celebrated  Dr.  Maudsley  says :  "  I  cannot  but  think,  after  what  I  have 
seen,  that  the  extreme  passion  for  getting  rich,  absorbing  the  whole 
energies  of  a  life,  does  predispose  to  mental  degeneration  in  the  off- 
soring,  either  to  moral  defect,  or  to  moral  and  intellectual  deficiency, 
or  to  outbreaks  of  insanity." 

272.  The  relation  of  the  nervous  centres  to  the  blood  is 
the  same  in  kind  as  that  between  other  parts  of  the  body  and 
their  blood-supply.  Great  waste  is  produced  by  nervous 
action ;  hence,  the  centres  are  very  largely  supplied  with 
blood-vessels,  especially  the  Ideational  centres  (hemispheres 
of  the  brain). 

273.  The  nervous  system  may  he  impaired  by  impure  air. 
Everybody  knows  that  bad  air  injures  the  lungs,  but  few 
realize  that,  on  the  whole,  it  injures  the  brain  still  more.  As 
the  nerve-tissue  is  the  most  delicate  part  of  the  body,  it 
soonest  feels  the  evil  effects  of  imperfectly  purified  blood. 

274.  The  nervous  system  may  be  impaired  by  improper  diet. 
We  are  wont  to  believe  that  improper  diet  may  affect  the 
digestive  organs,  but  seldom  consider  the  mental  and  moral 
effects  of  such  diet.  Improper  food  poisons  the  blood,  and 
thus  the  nerve-centres  are  not  only  cheated  of  their  nutri- 
ment, but  are  poisoned ;  hence,  the  ideas  become  confused, 
and  the  will  weakened.  The  whole  man  is  crippled,  physi- 
cally, mentally  and  morally.  It  is  an  indisputable  fact  that 
bad  bread,  for  instance,  may  thus  have  a  very  immoral  influ- 
ence. Those  much  engaged  in  mental  labor  suffer  most  from 
bad  diet.  No  teacher  can  teach  well,  no  lawyer  can  plead 
well,  no  physician  can  practice  well,  no  minister  can  think  or 
preach  well,  who  habitually  takes  improper  food. 

Observation  1. — If  such  be  the  effect  of  improper  food,  what  shall  we 
say  of  such  poisons  as  alcohol,  opium,  haschish,  tobacco,  etc.,  which  act 

state  the  second  requirement  of  health  and  vigor.    Speak  of  the  evil  of  breathing  im* 
pure  air     What  are  the  results  of  improper  diet  ?    Observations, 


\ 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  145 

so  directly  and  powerfully  upon  the  nervous  system  ?  The  sa  tne  poison 
does  not  equally  affect  all  the  nerve-centres ;  thus,  strychnine  acts  upon 
the  spinal  centres,  but  not  the  cerebral;  haschish,  upon  the  sensory 
centres,  giving  rise  to  hallucinations;  alcohol,  upon  the  cerebral  centres 
particularly.  The  alcoholic  poison  first  produces  an  increased  activity 
of  the  muscles,  then  alternate  exaltation  and  depression,  both  physical 
and  mental ;  finally,  stupor,  relaxation  of  the  muscles  and  deep  sleep. 
These  symptoms  are  transitory ;  but  iet  the  poisoning  process  be  con- 
linued,  and  true  delirium,  so  well  known  as  "delirium  tremens,"  fol- 
lows, and  at  length  what  is  known  as  "chronic  alcoholism;"  and, 
while  intoxication  lasts  a  few  hours,  and  delirium  tremens  a  few  days 
or  weeks,  chronic  alcoholism  spreads  its  baneful  influence  overyears, 
unless  death  prevents  the  full  development  of  the  tragedy.  The  victim 
of  alcoholic  poison  is  equally  enfeebled  in  body  and  mind.  The 
nervous  system  becomes  exhausted,  the  moral  sentiments  perverted,  the 
w^ill-power  broken,  and  he  seems  powerless  to  cease  from  the  fatal  habit 
which  has  produced  the  change. 

2. — With  the  opium-eater  the  diseases  of  the  nervous  system  declare 
themselves  even  more  rapidly  than  with  the  drunkard.  Says  M.  Morel : 
"Given  the  period  at  which  a  person  begins  to  smoke  opium,  and  it  is 
easy  to  predicate  the  time  of  his  death :  his  days  are  numbered." 

3. — Tobacco  is  one  of  the  most  virulent  poisons.  It  soothes  the  nerves 
temporarily,  only  to  leave  them  more  enfeebled  and  irritable. 

4. — Even  excessive  use  of  tea  and  coffee  may  prove  disastrous  to  the 
health  of  the  nervous  system. 

275.  The  nervous  system  may  be  impaired  by  want  of  physical 
exercise.  Among  other  agencies  that  affect  the  nervous  sys- 
tem, none  exert  a  wider  influence  than  bodily  exercise.  It 
seems  to  be  required  to  complete  the  change  which  the  blood 
undergoes  while  passing  through  the  lungs  and  skin,  without 
which  the  waste  of  nerve-element  could  not  be  repaired.  In 
persons  who  are  merely  sedentary,  having  little  occasion  for 
active  thought,  this  want  of  exercise  is  sufficiently  mis- 
chievous ;  but  when  there  is  great  mental  activity,  the  mis- 
chief is  vastly  increased. 

Observation. — Thousands  of  ministers,  lawyers,  those  who  sit  in  tlio 
bank  and  counting-room,  shorten  their  days  because  of  this  neglect : 
especially  is  this  the  case  in  America.     The  English  nobility,  notwith- 

What  will  a  want  of  physical  exorcise  produce?    Observation. 
13  G 


146  ANATOMY,,  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

standing  their  many  indulgences,  are  a  long-lived  race,  and  this  is 
doubtless  owing  to  their  spending  so  much  time  in  open-air  exercise. 

276.  The  nervous  system  and  mental  activities  may  he  enfeebled 
by  an  unhealthy  skin.  If  its  healthy  state  is  impaired  by 
want  of  cleanliness,  by  deficient  clothing  or  by  a  diseased 
action  of  the  cells  of  the  skin  (the  nucleated  epithelium), 
through  an  intimate  sympathy  in  like  tissues,  the  cells  of  the 
nerve-tissue  may  be  seriously  affected. 

277.  The  nervous  system  may  become  impaired  by  taking  too 
little  sleep.  "Sleep  knits  up  the  raveled  structure"  of  ner- 
vous element,  for  during  sleep  organic  assimilation  is  restoring 
what  has  been  expended  in  functional  energy.  A  renewal  of 
nervous  energy  as  often  as  once  a  day  is  an  institution  of 
Nature. 

Observation  1. — Among  the  wise  arrangements  of  the  Creator,  none 
harmonize  with  the  wants  of  the  system  more  perfectly  than  the  alter- 
nation of  day  and  night.  The  amount  of  sleep  necessary  depends  upon 
the  age,  health,  natural  temperament  and  occupation  of  the  individual. 
The  more  rapid  the  exhaustion  of  nervous  energy  from  any  cause,  the 
more  sleep  will  be  required.  The  young  and  the  aged  need  more  sleep 
than  the  person  of  middle  life,  the  sick  more  than  the  well,  those 
engaged  in  mental  pursuits  more  than  those  wearied  by  manual  labor, 
persons  of  great  sensibility  more  than  the  sluggish  natures  whose 
normal  condition  is  more  nearly  allied  to  sleep,  woman  more  than  man. 
We  may  say  in  general  that  the  time  should  not  be  less  than  from  six 
to  eight  hours,  and  most  persons  require  a  longer  period.  The  time, 
however,  must  be  proportioned  to  the  need. 

2. — Among  the  wealthy  classes  the  customs  of  the  times  are  quite  at 
variance  with  those  habits  of  sleep  which  are  essential  to  mental  vigor. 
Where  amusements  are  pursued  till  late  hours  night  after  night,  the 
nervous  system  greatly  suffers,  and  every  department  of  the  mind 
becomes  unhealthy.  The  man  who,  eager  to  become  rich,  takes  time 
from  his  sleep  for  business  purposes,  draws  from  his  brain  capital. 

278.  Regular  and  systematic  mental  exercise  is  essential  to  the 
health  of  nerve-tissue.  Exercise  increases  the  flow  of  blood  to 
the  active  part.  We  have  seen  this  to  be  the  case  in  the 
muscle,  and  that  by  use  it  is  both  enlarged  and  strengthened. 

By  what  may  the  nervous  system  be  enfeebled?  Speak  of  the  benefits  of  sleep  aii'i 
the  amount  nee  Jed.    Observation.     Why  is  mental  exercise  essential  ? 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  147 

In  like  manner  the  nerve-tissue  needs  exercise ,  and  as  the 
gymnast  becomefe  expert,  not  by  spasmodic  muscular  efforts, 
but  by  accurate,  persistent  drill,  so  must  the  mental  athlete 
gain  his  power  by  the  regular  performance  of  such  exercise 
as  he  is  able  to  bear. 

279.  The  amount  of  exercise  should  be  adapted  to  the  health 
and  age  of  the  individual  If  from  any  cause  the  nervous 
system  be  weakened,  an  amount  of  exercise  which  would  be 
quite  harmless  to  one  in  health  may  prove  disastrous.  The 
nerve-tissue  of  children  and  youth  needs  the  same  care  as  has 
been  shown  requisite  for  other  tissues,  and  overwork  that  in 
the  adult  is  followed  by  fatigue,  easily  removed  by  rest,  in 
the  child  may  result  in  irreparable  injury. 

280.  The  required  rest  is  often  afforded  by  recreation  and 
amusement.  Important  as  stated  employment  unquestionably 
is  to  the  mental  health,  amusement  or  recreation  is  scarcely 
less  so.  Few  persons,  whatever  their  mental  character  or 
temperament,  can  safely  dispense  with  these  altogether.  Even 
the  most  commanding  intellects  sometimes  seek  the  recreation 
which  their  exhausting  labors  make  necessary  in  forms  of 
amusement  which,  to  those  who  feel  the  necessity  less,  seem 
to  be  frivolous. 

Observation  1. — To  those  whose  life  is  one  of  severe  toil  and  harassing 
care,  amusements  constitute  almost  the  only  practicable  means  for  le- 
pairing  the  constant  waste  of  the  nervous  energy.  Especially  is  this 
want  felt  by  women  in  the  humbler  walks  of  life,  whose  daily  round  of 
care  and  toil  not  only  draws  more  largely  than  that  of  the  stronger  sex 
on  the  physical  and  mental  energies,  but  is  lightened  by  none  of  tiiat 
relief  which  is  afforded  by  a  greater  variety  of  duties  and  more  frequent 
periods  of  rest. 

2. — The  brain,  when  severely  taxed,  is  often  rested  by  some  kind  of 
mental  exercise,  which,  without  being  fatiguing,  requires  just  enough 
effort  to  impart  interest.  Hence,  a  change  from  mathematics  to  the 
languages,  or  from  these  to  music,  poetry  or  painting,  will  give  the 
needed  relaxation. 

281.  To  maintain  the  highest  mental  vigor  each  faculty  of  the 


To  what  should  the  amount  of  exercise  be  adapted?    Give  the  influence  of  recreation 
tnd  amusement.    Observations.    What  is  essential  to  the  highest  mental  vigor? 


148  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOl  r   AND   HYGIENE. 

mind  should  receive  its  due  share  of  cultivation.  Our  various 
faculties  were  not  bestowed  at  random,  to  be  used  as  inclina- 
tion may  prompt,  but  each  has  its  appointed  place  in  the 
mental  economy.  Each  bears  some  relation  to  every  other, 
making  one  harmonious  whole.  One  must  form  habits  of 
attention,  accustom  the  mind  to  continuous  thought,  cultivate 
the  reasoning  powers  and  beget  a  taste  for  exact  knowledge, 
if  he  would  be  in  any  measure  equal  to  the  intellectual  effort 
essential  to  true  success  in  every  calling  of  life. 

282.  Man  has  also  a  moral  faculty,  the  power  of  discrimi- 
nating between  right  and  wrong,  which  is  quickly  followed 
by  the  feeling  of  obligation  to  do  the  right  and  avoid  the 
wrong.  Upon  the  right  use  of  these  faculties  depend  the 
happiness  and  the  destiny  of  man.  The  power  of  an  approv- 
ing conscience  over  the  human  mind,  and  consequently  over 
the  health  of  the  Nervous  System,  cannot  be  over-estimated, 
while  on  the  other  hand  the  torments  of  an  accusing  con- 
science not  only  "  cut  the  sinews  of  the  soul's  inherent 
strength,"  but  snap  one  by  one  the  gossamer  filaments  of  the 
brittle  thread  of  life. 


/ 


i  3S.  Comparative  Anatomy  (Neurology). — The  Comparison  of  the 
Nervous  System  of  other  Mammals  with  that  of  Man — Of  Birds — Of 
Reptiles — Of  Amphibians — Of  Fishes.     Peculiar  Arrangement  of  some 

I        Fishes.     The  Arrangement  of  the  Nervous  System  of  Mollusca — Of 

j  Radiata. 

r  283.  Animals,  whatever  their  structure  may  be,  have  cer- 
\  tain  relations  with  the  external  world ;  all  nourish  them- 
selves ;  the  lowest  type,  as  the  sponge,  nourishes  itself,  as  far 
as  the  result  to  itself  is  concerned,  as  does  man.  All  Verte- 
brates do  not  possess  a  vertebral  column,  but  all  do  possess 
something  analogous  to  the  spinal  cord — a  "  noto' -chord." 
The  nervous  system  of  Vertebrates  is  highly  developed,  and 
is  made  up  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord.  The  latter  are  not 
represented  in  Invertebrates. 

What  is  the  moral  faculty?  Upon  what  depend  the  happiness  and  destiny  of  man? 
What  is  said  of  the  Nervous  System  in  Vertebrates  and  Invertebrates?  Compare  the 
Nervous  System  in  other  Mammals  with  that  in  man. 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


14& 


Fig.  136. 


284.  In  other  Mammals,  the  relative  size  of  the  cerebrum 
and  cerebellum,  except  in  the  lowest  order,  as  the  Duck-mole, 
is  about  the  same  as  in  man;  but  the  convolutions  of  the 
brain  of  other  mammals  are  less  developed  than  in  man,  and 
certain  ganglions  are  comparatively  larger.  The  brain  of  all 
mammals  is  formed  on  the  same  plan ;  in  man  alone  the  back 
lobe  of  the  cerebrum  overlaps  the  cerebellum.  In  the  Horse 
and  Ox  the  senses  of  smell,  sight  and  hearing  are  acute,  and 
their  respective  ganglions  are  large.  In  some  animals,  as  the 
Mole,  where  vision  is 

feeble,  and  in  others 
where  smell  or  hear- 
ing is  obtuse,  the 
ganglions  are  very 
small  and  the  nerves 
very  delicate. 

285.  In  Birds  the 
hemispheres  are  not 
united  as  in  man; 
the  cerebellum  is  pro- 
portionately larger 
than  the  medulla  ob- 
longata, and  the  com- 
parative weight  of 
the  brain  to  the  body 
is  less  than  in  mam- 
mals. The  ganglions 
of  sight  in  birds  are 
large,  Mhich  is  par- 
ticularly apparent  in 
the  Eagle,  Vulture 
and  Buzzard.  In 
these,  vision  is  not  only  far-reaching,  but  acute,  and  the  same 
is  true,  to  a  certain  extent,  of  smell  and  hearing.   (Fig.  138.) 

286.  The  brain  of  Reptiles  is  smooth  and  without  convo- 
lutions.    The  hemispheres  are  hollow,  and  there  is  no  striated 

Describe  the  brain  of  Birds.    Speak  of  the  brain  of  Reptiles. 
13* 


FiQ.  136  (^Owm).  Base  of  Brain  op  a  Horsb. — 1, 
Cerebrum.  2,  Ganglion  of  sight.  3,  Cerebellnm.  4, 
Medulla  Oblongata  and  Spinal  Cord. 


150  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 

body.  The  cerebellum  sends  no  prolongations  across  the 
medulla  oblongata,  as  in  mammals.  The  ganglions  of  sight 
and  smell  are,  in  general,  large.  Hearing  is  less  complete 
than  in  mammals.    (Fig.  137.) 

287.  In  Amphibians  the  nervous  system  is  but  slightly  de- 
veloped. The  cerebrum  is  small ;  the  cerebellum  is  scarcely 
visible.     (Fig.  137.) 

288.  The  brain  of  the  FisK  is  small ;  it  does  not  fill  the 
whole  cranial  cavity,  there  being  found  within  it  a  spongy 


Fig.  13; 


Fig.  138. 


Fig.  139. 


Fig.  13/.  Brain  of  an  Alligator. — 1,  Olfactory  gauo;lions.  2,  Cerebrum.  3,  Optic 
ganglions.  4,  Cerebellum,  6,  Medulla  Oblongata  and  Spinal  Cord. 

Fig.  138.  Brain  of  a  Bird. — 1,  Cerebrum.  2,  Optic  ganglion.  3,  Cerebellum.  4, 
Medulla  'tblongata. 

Fig.  \Z\  Brain  of  a  Fish. — ^1,  Olfactory  ganglions.  2,  Cerebrum.  3,  Optic  ganglions.  4, 
Cerebellum.    5,  Medulla  Oblongata  and  Spinal  Cord. 

fatty  mass.  The  investment  and  protection  of  some  of  the 
organs  of  special  sense  are  modified,  as  seen  in  the  eye  of  the 
deep-sea  shark,  where  one  of  the  coats  of  the  eye  is  bony,  in 
order  to  protect  this  organ  from  the  great  pressure  of  the 
water.     (Fig.  139.) 

289.  In  the  Annulosa,  in  general,  each  segment  or  ring  has 
a  pair  of  nervous  ganglions.  The  ganglions  of  the  nerves  of 
special  sensation  are  larger  than  those  of  general  sensation. 

290.  The  nervous  system  of  insects  is  composed  principally 


Describe  the  Nervous  System  in  Amphibians.  Describe  the  brain  of  the  Fish.  Deecribo 
the  Nervous  System  in  the  Annulosa. 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 


151 


Fig.  140. 


of  a  double  series  of  ganglions  united  by  longitudinal  cords. 
The  brain  ganglions  are  large,  and  give  origin  to  the  nerves 
of  sight  and  the  feelers  {antennoi). 

In  the  nervous  system  of  the  centi- 
pede, whose  general  structure  is  simi- 
lar to  that  of  other  annulosa,  the  gan- 
glions are  arranged  in  pairs  of  nearly 
equal  size,  except  the  ganglion  that 
answers  to  the  brain,  which  is  larger, 
along  the  under  surface  of  the  ali- 
mentary canal.  Each  pair  is  con- 
nected with  the  preceding,  with  the 
integument  or  skin,  and  with  the 
muscles  of  its  own  ring,  by  sensitive 
and  motor  filaments  of  nerves. 

291.  In  the  Mollusca  are  found  the 
ganglions  and  connective  arrange- 
ment, with  both  sensitive  and  motor 
nerves,  and  on  a  plan  corresponding  to  the  body.    (Fig.  142.) 

292.  In  the  Kadiata,  the  star-fish  manifests  one  of  the 


Fig.  14( ).     I) i ah R >. m  of    N  i : u 
vous  Ststkm  of  a  Heetle.— 1,  1, 
Central  ganglia.    2, 2, 2,  Nerves 
that  connect  the  ganglions. 


Fig.  141. 


Fig.  141.  Diagram  of  a  OjiNxiPcur.. 


simplest  forms  of  the  nervous  system.  It  consists  of  a  cen- 
tral mass,  with  five  arms  radiating  from  it.  In  the  centre  is 
the  mouth,  and  beneath  it  the  stomach  or  gastric  cavity, 
which  sends  branches  to  each  limb.  The  nervous  system  con- 
sists of  five  similar  ganglions  situated  in  the  central  portion 
at  the  base  of  the  arms.     These  ganglions  are  connected,  and 


Describe  the  Nervous  System  in  Insects.    In  the  Centipede.    Speak  of  the  nerv.us 
system  in  Mollusca.    Describe  the  nervous  system  in  Radiata. 


152  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

each  sends  off  nerve-filaments  to  the  corresponding  limba 
(Fig.  143.) 


Fig.  142. 


Fig.  143. 


Fig.  142.  Diagram  of  the  Type  of  a  Mollusca. — ^1,  (Esophagal  ganglions.    2,  Cerelral 
ganglions.    3,  Pedal  of  locomotive  ganglions.    4,  Respiratory  ganglions. 
Fig.  143.  Diagram  op  a  Radiata — The  Star-Fish. 

Observation. — The  relations  of  the  animal  kingdom  afibrd  a  striking 
evidence  of  divine  unity,  bound  together  in  the  closest  harmony,  and 
the  work  of  Him  who  was  the  Beginning  and  will  be  the  End. 

Observation. 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 


153 


Fig.  144. 


Fig.  145. 


SYNTHETIC   TOI^IC^L   REVie^^T 

OF  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

SnT^-kixigdoras,    Divisions,  J^natoray,   I*h.ysiology, 

Hygiene. 


Slate  the  Auatomy,  the  Physiology,  the  Hygiene,  Human  and  Comparative 


CHAPTER  XI. 


SPECIAL  SENSES. 


293.  As  the  Nervous  System  is  the  border  land  where 
the  body  touches  the  mmd,  we  now  shall  speak  of  the  bond 
of  connection  in  the  animal  economy  between  the  external 
and  internal  world — the  Special  Senses. 

294.  Our  ideas  of  odor,  of  form,  of  sound  and  of  taste  are 
obtained  from  impressions  made  on  the  mind  through  the 
Senses.  There  are  five  senses — Smell,  Sight,  Hearing,  Taste 
and  Touch. 


§  33.  Anatomy  of  the  Organs  of  Smell. — The  Olfactory  Nerves. 

295.  The  Sense  of  Smell  enables  us  to  discern  the  odor 

or  scent  of  substances.  The 
special  seat  of  the  sense  of 
smell  is  in  the  delicate  mem- 
brane which  lines  the  inter- 
nal surface  of  the  Nose  and 
its  passages.  To  this  mem- 
brane the  Olfact'ory  or 
nerve  of  smell  is  distributed. 
296.  To  protect  the  del- 
icate filaments  of  the  nerve 
of  smell,  thus  freely  exposed 
^     ,  ,^   .  .     ,.  „  to  the  air  and  to  the  pain- 

FiG.  146.  A  Side  \  iew  of  the  Passage  of  the  ^  ^ 

Nostrils.— 4,  The  distribution  of  the  first  ol-  ful   StimuluS  of  sharp,  pun- 
factory  pair  of  nerves.    5,  The  fine  divisions  ^^  ^^^    membrane 

of  this  nerve  on  the  membrane  of  the  Bose.    6,  o  ' 

A  branch  of  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves.    9,  Upper  is  kept  Constantly  moist  by 

jaw-bone  and  roof  of  the  month.  ^      g^.^      SCCrcted      by      the 

glands  with  which  it  is  provided. 


What  is  the  bond  of  connection  between  the  external  and  internal  world  In  the  ant 
mal  economy?    Name  the  Senses. 

154 


SPECIAL   SENSES.  155 

§  34.  Physiology  of  the  Sense  of  Smell. — Improved  by  Education. 

297.  The  Sense  of  Smell  aids  man  as  well  as  the  lower 
animals  in  selecting  proper  food.  It  also  gives  us  pleasure 
by  the  inhalation  of  agreeable  odors.  When  substances  arc 
presented  to  the  nose  the  air  that  is  passing  through  the  nos- 
trils brings  the  odoriferous  particles  of  matter  in  contact  with 
the  filaments  of  the  nerve  of  smell  that  are  spread  upon  the 
membrane  that  lines  the  air  passages,  and  the  impression  is 
then  carried  to  the  brain. 

298.  The  sense  of  smell  may  be  improved  by  cultivation. 
Thus  the  Indian  can  easilv  distinguish  different  tribes  and 
different  persons  of  the  same  tribe  by  the  odor  of  their  bodies. 
Next  to  touch,  smell  is  of  great  importance  to  the  blind. 

299.  This  sense  is  seen  to  be  remarkably  acute  in  the  Dog. 
He  will  trace  his  master's  footsteps  through  thickly  crowded 
streets  and  distinguish  them  from  thousands  of  others ;  he 
will  track  the  Hare  over  the  ground  for  miles,  guided  only 
by  the  odor  that  it  leaves  in  its  flight.  Some  Fishes  possess 
acuteness  of  smell  in  a  remarkable  degree,  as  shown  in  the 
nicety  with  which  they  select  different  baits. 

§  35.  Hygiene  of  Smell. — Perversion  of  the  Sense  of  Smell. 

300.  Acuteness  of  Smell  requires  that  the  brain  and 
nerve  of  smell  (olfactory)  be  healthy,  and  that  the  membrane 
that  lines  the  nose  be  thin  and  moist.  Any  influence  that 
diminishes  the  sensibility  of  the  nervous  filaments,  thickens 
the  membrane  or  renders  it  dry,  impairs  this  sense. 

Observation, — Snuff,  when  introduced  into  the  nose,  not  only  dimin- 
ishes the  sensibility  of  the  nerve,  but  thickens  the  lining  membrane. 
This  thickening  of  the  membrane  obstructs  the  passage  of  air  through 
the  nostrils,  and  thus  obliges  "  snufF-taker.s  "  to  open  their  mouths  when 
they  breathe. 


Wliat  is  said  of  the  Sense  of  Smell  ?  What  is  the  name  of  the  nerve  of  Smell  ?  How 
Is  this  nerve  protected?  Give  the  function  of  Smell.  Of  what  use  is  this  sense?  How 
snaceptible  of  cultivation?  Speak  of  the  acuteness  of  this  sense  in  the  lower  animals. 
On  what  does  acuteness  of  smell  depend?     Give  observation. 


156 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


§  36.  Anatomy  of  the  Organ  of  Sight. — Different  parts  of  the  Eye, 

301.  The  Sense  of  Sight  contributes  more  to  the  enjoy- 
meut  and  happiness  of  man  than  any  of  the  other  senses.  By 
it  we  perceive  the  form,  color,  size  and  position  of  objects 
that  surround  us.  The  beautiful  organ  of  sight  (vision)  is 
the  Eye. 

302.  The  Eye  is  shaped  like  a  globe  or  ball,  and  is  placed 
in  a  cavity  in  front  of  the  skull.  The  sides  of  the  globes  are 
composed  of  three  Coats  (membranes).  The  interior  of  the 
globe  is  filled  with  certain  substances  called  Hu'mors. 

303.  The  Coats  are  three  in  number.  1st.  The  Solerofic 
and  Corn'ea.  2d.  The  Cho'roid,  I'ris  and  Oil'iary  Processes. 
3d.  The  JRet'ina. 

Fig.  147. 


9^ 

Via.  147.  A  Section  of  the  Eye.— 1,  The  sclerotic  coat.  2,  The  cornea.  Tliis  connects 
svitli  the  sclerotic  coat  by  a  beveled  edge.  3,  The  choroid  coat.  6,  6,  The  iris.  7,  The 
pupil.  8,  The  retina.  10, 11, 11,  Chambers  or  cavities  of  the  eye  that  contain  the  aque- 
ous humor.  12,  The  crystalline  lens.  13,  The  vitreous  humor.  15,  The  optic  nerve. 
14, 16,  An  artery  of  the  eye. 

304.  The  Humors  are  also  three  in  number.  1st.  The 
A'queous  (watery).  2d.  The  Crystalline  (lens).  3d.  The 
Vitfreous  (glassy).    (Fig.  147.) 

305.  The  Sclerotic  coat  is  firm  and  its  color  white;  hence 
it  is  frequently  called   the  "  white  of  the  eye."     From  its 

What  sense  contributefa  luost  to  the  enjoyment  of  man  ?  What  do  we  perceive  by  this 
sense?  Give  the  structure  of  the  Eye.  Name  the  Coats.  Name  the  Humors.  Speak 
of  the  Sclerotic  Coat. 


SPECIAL   SENSES. 


157 


toughness  it  forms  the  principal  support  to  this  organ.     This 
membrane,  with  the  cornea  in  front,  encloses  the  eye. 

306.  The  Cornea  is  the  transparent  part  of  the  eye  in 
front,  which  projects  more  than  the  rest  of  the  globe.  It  i3 
shaped  like  the  crystal  of  a  watch,  and  in  health  gives  the 
eye  its  sparkling  brilliancy. 

307.  The  Choroid  coat  is  of  a  dark  color  upon  its  inner 
surface.  It  contains  a  great  number  of  blood-vessels,  which 
give  nourishment  to  diflferent  parts  of  the  eye. 

308.  The  Iris  is  situated  a  short  distance  behind  the  cor- 
nea. It  is  the  most  delicate  of  all  the  muscles  of  the  body. 
This  part  gives  the  blue,  gray  or  black  color  to  the  eye.  In 
the  centre  of  the  iris  is  an  opening  called  the  pu'pil,  which 
enlarges  or  contracts  according  to  the  quantity  of  light  that 
falls  upon  the  eye. 

309.  On  viewing  the  part  Fig.  148. 
of  the  eye  near  the  pupil, 
small  lines  of  a  lighter  color 
will  be  seen  passing  to  the 
outer  part  of  the  iris ;  these 
are  called  Ciliary  Pro- 
cesses. They  are  about 
sixty  in  number.  (Fig. 
148.) 

310.  The  Ketina  is  the 
inner  coat  of  the  eye  formed 
by  the  expansion  of  the  op- 
tic nerve  upon  the  inner 
side  of  the  choroid  coat,  but 
not  extending  so  far  for- 
ward. 

311.  The  Aqueous  humor  occupies  the  space  between  the 
cornea  and  crystalline  humor  both  before  and  behind  the  iris. 

312.  The  Crystalline  humor  (lens)  lies  behind  the 
aqueous  humor  and  pupil.     Its  form  is  different  on  the  two 


Fig.  148.  A  Section  of  the  Eye  sekic  from 
■WITHIN. — 1,  The  divided  edge  of  the  three 
coats.  2,  The  pupil.  3,  The  iris.  4,  Tlie  cil- 
iary processes.  5,  The  scolloped  border  of 
the  retina. 


Speak  of  the  Coruea,    The  Choroid  Coat.     Describe  the  Iris.    The  Retiua.     Sf  eak  of 
the  Aqueous  humor.     Crvstalliue  lens. 

14 


158 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


Fig.  149. 


sides.     When  boiled  it  may  be  separated  into  layers  like 

those  of  an  onion. 

Observation. — When  the  crystalline  lens  or  the  membrar.e  which  sur« 
rounds  it  is  changed  in  structure  so  as  to  prevent  the  rays  of  light  pass- 
ing to  the  retina,  the  affection  is  called  a  cataract. 

313.  The  Vitreous  humor  is  situated  in  the  back  part  of 
the  eye.  It  occupies  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  whole  inte- 
rior of  the  globe  of  the  eye. 

314.  The  Optic  Nerv^e  (or  nerve  of  vision)  extends  from 

the  brain  to  the  back 
part  of  the  eye,  where  it 
expands  on  a  portion  of 
the  choroid  coat.  On 
this  expansion  the  im- 
age of  objects  is  first 
formed.     (Fig.  149.) 

315.  The  Muscles  of 
the  eye  are  six  in  num- 
ber. Thev  are  attached 
at  one  extremity  to  the 
orbit  behind  the  eye ;  at 
the  other  extremity  they 
are  inserted  by  broad, 
thin  tendons  to  the  scle- 
rotic coat,  near  the  junc- 
tion of  the  cornea.  The 
white,  pearly  appearance 
of  the  eye  is  caused  by 
these  tendons.  (Fig. 
150.) 


Fig.  149.  The  Optic  or  Second  Pair  op  Nerves. 
-1,  The  eye-ball  enclosed  in  its  coats.  2,  The 
crossing  of  the  optic  nerve.  3,  4,  The  brain.  5,6, 
The  commencement  of  the  spinal  cord.  7,  8,  9, 10, 
11, 12, 13,  The  cranial  nerves.  14,  The  globe  with 
the  sclerotic  coat  removed  to  show  the  retina. 


Observation. — If  the  external  muscle  is  too  short,  the  eye  is  turned 
out,  producing  the  "  wall  eye ;"  if  the  internal  muscle  is  contracted,  the 
eye  is  turned  inward  toward  the  nose,  and  is  called  a  "  cross  eye." 

316.  The  Protecting  Organs  of  the  eye  are  the  Orbits, 
Eyebrows,  Eyelids  and  Lach'rymal  (tear)  Apparatus.  (Fig.  151.) 

Give  observation.    Where  is  the  Vitreous  Humor  situated?     D(  scribe  the  Optic  Nerve. 
Speak  of  the  Muscles  of  the  Eye. 


SPECIAL   SENSES. 


159 


317.  The  Orbits  are  deep,  bony  sockets  in  wliicli  the  eye- 
balls are  placed.  The  bottom  of  each  orbit  has  a  large  open- 
ing giving  passage  to  the  optic  nerve.  These  cavities  are 
lined  with  a  thick  cushion  of  fat. 

318.  The  Eyebrows  are  the  hairy  arches  forming  the 
upper  part  of  the  boundary  of  the  orbits. 

319.  The  Eyelids  are  two  movable  curtains  having  a 
delicate  skin  on  the  outside.     Internally,  they  are  lined  by  a 

fiG.  150 


1  J.  150.  Muscles  of  thk  Eye.— A,  The  eye-ball.  1,  2,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9  and  10,  Muscles  of 
the  jy«.  11,  Optic  uerve,  12,  Cut  surface  of  the  cheek-bone.  3,  The  pulley  arrauge- 
moL  •  through  which  the  tendou  of  muscle  2  plays, 

smooth  membrane,  called  conjunctiva.     The  edges  of  the  lids 
are  furnished  with  hairs,  called  eyelashes. 

320.  The  Lachrymal  Apparatus  which  secretes  the  tears 
consists  of  the  Lachrymal  Gland  with  its  ducts,  Lachrymal 
Canals  and  the  Nasal  Duct. 

I  37.  Physiology  of  Sight. 

321.  The  Structure  of  the  Eye  is  beautifully  adapted 
to  the  laws  of  light,  a  few  of  which  it  is  necessary  for  us  to 


Narue  the  protecting  organs  of  the  eye.  Speak  of  the  orbits  of  the  eye.  Describo 
the  eyebrows.  Give  the  structure  of  the  eyelids.  Describe  the  Lachrymal  Apparatus 
State  some  of  the  laws  of  light. 


160 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


notice.  When  light  passes  through  a  medium  of  unvarying 
density,  the  rays  are  in  straight  lines,  but  when  it  passes  from 
a  medium  of  one  density  into  another  of  different  density, 
they  are  refracted  or  bent  from  a  straight  course  unless 
striking  the  medium  perpendicularly,  when  they  are  un- 
changed. When  light  passes  from  one  medium  to  another 
having  a  convex  or  concave  surface  instead  of  a  flat  surface, 
a  great  degree  of  refraction  is  produced,  and  the  greater  the 
curvature,  the  greater  will  be  the  amount  of  refraction. 


Fig.  151. 


Fig.  ]51.  View  ok  Lachktmal  Gland 
AND  Nasal  Duct. — 1,  The  lachrymal 
gland.  2,  Ducts  leading  from  the  lach- 
rymal gland  to  the  upper  eyelid.  3,  3, 
The  "  tear  points."  4,  The  nasal  sac.  5, 
The  termination  of  the  nasal  duct. 


Illustration. — Fit  a  convex  lens  in 
an  opening  of  the  shutter  of  a 
darkened  room;  the  rays  of  light 
will  cross  each  other  in  the  lens,  and 
an  inverted  image  of  any  object  out- 
side, as  a  tree  or  house,  may  be  re- 
ceived upon  a  screen  placed  in  the 
room  at  a  certain  distance  behind 
the  lens.  The  exact  point  where 
the  image  is  most  distinct  is  called 
the/ocits  of  the  lens,  and  the  distanc  i 
from  the  lens  to  the  image  the/oc«» 
distance.  Now,  in  the  eye  the  dark 
color  of  the  choroid  coat  gives  the 
darkened  room,  the  retina  the  screen, 
the  pupil  is  the  opening  in  the 
shutter,  and  the  three  humors  are 
the  curved  lenses.  The  rays  of 
light  from  any  object  cross  each 
other,  and  an  inverted  image  is 
formed  on  the  retina. 


322.  The  shape  of  the  Cornea  and  the  Humors  of  the 

eye  seems  admirably  adapted  to  modify  the  rays  of  light  in 

such  a  manner  as  to  make  the  impression  clear  and  distinct 

on  the  optic  nerve. 

Observation. — When  the  cornea  or  crystalline  lens  is  too  convex  or 
the  latter  is  too  far  from  the  retina,  short-sightedness  is  produced,  and  the 
defect  is  measurably  remedied  by  the  use  of  concave  glasses;  when 
there  is  too  little  convexity,  long-sightedness  is  the  result,  and  convex 


Give  illustration.    What  is  the  function  of  the  Cornea  and  the  Humors  ?     Observaticu 


SPECIAL  SENSES.  161 

glasses  should  be  used.  In  old  age,  the  humors  being  deficient  ii. 
quantity,  cause  the  flattening  of  the  convex  parts,  hence  the  need  of 
convex  glasses.  In  the  selection  of  glasses  the  lens  for  each  eye  should 
be  chosen  separately,  as  the  foci  of  the  two  eyes  do  not  usually  exactly 
correspond :  therefore  a  lens  that  will  suit  one  eye  may  injure  the  other. 

323.  The  Sclerotic  Coat  gives  form  to  the  eye,  serves  for 
the  attachment  of  the  muscles  which  move  the  eve  in  various 
directions. 

324.  The  function  of  the  dark  color  of  the  Choroid  coat 
is  to  absorb  all  the  luminous  rays  not  necessary  for  sight. 

325.  The  cushion  of  fat  that  lines  the  orbits  enables  the 
eye  to  move  in  all  directions  with  freedom  and  without 
friction. 

326.  The  Eyebrows  assist  in  shading  the  eyes  when 
exposed  to  strong  light,  and  they  lend  expression  to  some 
emotions  of  the  mind. 

327.  The  Eyelids,  by  their  movements,  spread  over  the 
front  of  the  eyeball  a  watery  secretion,  by  which  its  surface 
is  constantly  bathed  and  its  brilliancy  and  transparency  kept 
unimpaired.  Though  the  lids  are  closed  by  each  ad  of  wink- 
ing, which  is  about  six  times  a  minute,  the  motion  is  so  quick 
that  it  passes  almost  unobserved. 

828.  The  Eyelashes  so  interlace  that  protection  is  given 
the  eye  from  light  substances  floating  in  the  air.  They  add 
very  greatly  to  the  expression  of  the  eye. 

329.  The  Horse  is  provided  with  a  beautiful  contrivance 
for  protecting  the  eye.  A  cartilage  is  so  arranged  that  it  is 
made  to  sweep  across  the  eye  at  the  will  of  the  animal,  and 
removes  dust  or  insects  that  may  fall  upon  it. 

In  Birds  and  Reptiles  a  thin  membrane  is  drawn  across 
the  eye,  and  so  transparent  as  not  to  impair  the  sight.  It 
gives  protection  to  the  eye  from  too  strong  light.  Most 
insects  are  furnished  with  complex  or  many  eyes. 


Give  the  function  of  the  Sclerotic  coat.    The  Choroid  coat.    Speak  of  the  Orbits  of  the 
Eyes.    The  Eyebrows.    What  is  the  use  of  the  Eyelids?    Of  the  Eyelashes?    State  the 
protection  to  the  eye  of  the  Horse.    To  other  inferior  animals. 
14* 


162  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

?  38.  Hygiene  of  the  Sense  of  Sight. 

330.  The  Eye  is  a  delicate  organ,  requiring  care  to  preserve 
it  in  health;  like  other  organs  of  the  body,  it  should  be  exer- 
cised and  then  rested.  The  observance  of  this  rule  is  par- 
ticularly needful  to  those  whose  eyes  are  predisposed  to 
inflammation.  If  the  eye  be  used  too  long  at  one  time,  it 
l)CComes  wearied  and  the  power  of  sight  diminished.  On  the 
contrary,  if  not  called  into  exercise,  its  functions  are  en- 
feebled or  permanently  impaired. 

331.  Using  the  eye  in  reading  or  writing,  also  in  looking 
at  minute  objects,  is  much  more  injurious  when  continued 
with  an  insufficient  or  a  flickering  light.  It  is  poor  economy 
to  read  habitually  books  too  finely  or  badly  printed.  Sudden 
changes  of  light  should  be  avoided.  The  w^ant  of  sleep 
impairs  this  delicate  and  most  valuable  of  all  the  senses. 

I  39.  Anatomy  of  the  Organ  of  Hearing. 

332.  Hearing,  in  utility,  is  scarcely  inferior  to  that  of 
sight.  While  we  can  see  in  only  one  direction  at  a  time,  we 
can  hear  from  all  directions.  While  the  eye  is  useless  in  the 
dark,  and  veiled  by  its  own  curtains  during  sleep,  the  Ear  is 
ever  a  faithful  sentinel,  warning  us  against  danger. 

333.  The  Ear  is  one  of  the  most  complicated  organs  in 
the  human  body.  It  is  composed  of  three  parts :  1st.  The 
External  ear.  2d.  The  Middle  ear  (Tym'panum).  3d.  The 
Internal  ear  (Lab'yrinth). 

334.  The  external  ear  presents  many  ridges  and  furrows, 
arising  from  the  folds  of  the  cartilage  that  forms  it.  A 
funnel-shaped  tube  extends  from  the  external  to  the  middle 
ear.  The  internal  extremity  of  the  tube  is  closed  by  a  thin, 
semi-transparent  membrane  that  separates  the  external  from 
the  middle  ear;  it  is  called  the  drum  of  the  ear  (Mem'brana 
Tym'pani).  This  and  the  bitter  wax  found  around  the  hairs 
in  the  tube  prevent  insects  from  entering  the  head. 

Give  some  rules  for  the  preservation  of  the  eye.  Give  the  remarks  relative  to  light 
and  looking  at  minute  objects.  State  the  utility  of  hearing.  What  is  said  of  the  EarT 
How  divided  ?    Give  the  structure  of  the  External  ear. 


SPECIAL   SENSES. 


163 


Observation. — Many  animals  have  small  muscles  tliat  move  the  ex 
ternal  ear,  in  order  to  catch  sounds  from  every  direction.     The  hare^ 
rabbit  and  horse  afford  good  examples. 

335.  The  middle  ear  is  connected  with  the  internal  and 
most  important  cavity  by  four  small  bones,  which  are  the 
most  delicate  and  beautifully  shaped  bones  in  the  body. 
These  are  so  arranged  as  to  form  a  chain  from  the  drum  of 
the  ear  to  the  labyrinth. 

Observation. — From  the  middle  ear  a  tube  opens  into  the  back  pail 
of  the  throat,  called  Eustachian,  which  admits  air  into  this  part  of  the 
ear.    If  this  tube  is  closed  by  disease  of  the  throat,  hearing  is  impaired. 

Fig.  152. 


Fig.  152.  A  View  of  all  the  Parts  of  thk  Ear,  1,  The  tube  that  leads  to  the  luternal 
ear.  2,  The  ruembrana  tympani.  3,  4,  5,  The  bones  of  the  ear.  7,  The  central  part  of 
the  labyrinth,  named  the  vestibule,  8,  9,  10,  The  semicircular  canals.  11,  12,  The 
channels  of  the  cochlea.  13,  The  auditory  nerve,  14,  The  channel  from  the  middle  ear 
to  the  throat  (Eustachian  tube).  15,  A  nerve.  16,  A  process.  17,  The  seventh  pair  of 
nerves  (facial).    18,  A  process  of  the  temporal  bone, 

336.  The  internal  ear  is  very  intricate,  and  the  uses  of 
its  various  parts  are  not  well  known.  It  is  called  the  laby- 
rinth from  its  many  windings.     This  part  of  the  ear  is  corn- 


Describe  the  Middle  ear.    Observation.    Speak  of  the  Internal  ear. 


164  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

posed  of  a  three-cornered  cavity  called  the  Ves'tihule^  the 
Coch'lea  (from  its  resembling  a  snail  shell),  and  the  semieir^' 
cular  canals.  The  internal  ear  is  the  only  part  that  is  abso- 
lutely essential  in  hearing. 

337.  The  Vestibule  is  never  omitted.  In  the  lower  ani- 
mals a  simple  sac  which  corresponds  with  this  cavity  is  the 
whole  organ  of  hearing.  Birds  have  no  external  ear.  Id 
Amphibians,  as  the  Frog,  the  tympanum  can  be  seen  back  of 

Fig.  153. 


Fio.  153.  A  View  of  the  Labteinth  laid  Open. — 1,  1,  The  cochlea.  2,  2,  3,  3,  Two 
channels  that  wind  two  and  a  half  turns  around  a  central  point  (5).  7,  The  central  por- 
tion of  the  labyrinth,  called  the  vestibule.  11,  12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,  The  semicircular 
ca.ial8.    Magnified. 

the  eye.     In  Fishes  sl  semicircular  canal  is  superadded  to  the 
tympanum. 

§  40.  Physiology  op  Hearing. 
338.  Hearing  is  that  function  by  which  we  obtain  a  know- 
ledge  of  the  vibratory  motion  of  bodies  which   constitute 
sound. 


What  part  is  absolutely  essential  iu  hearing  ?     Speak  of  the  organ  of  hearing  in  the 
lower  animals.    What  is  hearing? 


SPECIAL   SENSES. 


165 


339.  The  precise  function  of  all  the  different  parts  of  the 
ear  are  not  known ;  that  of  the  external  ear  is  to  collect 
sounds  and  reflect  them  into  the  tube  that  connects  the  ex- 
ternal with  the  middle  ear.  The  drum  (membrana  tympani) 
receives  all  the  impressions  of  the  air  which  enter  the  tube 
and  conveys  them  to  the  bones  of  the  ear.  It  also  serves  to 
moderate  the  intensity  of  sound. 

340.  The  supposed  office  of  the  middle  ear  is  to  carry 
the  vibrations  made  on  the  drum  to  the  internal  ear.  This 
is  effected  by  the  air  which  it  contains,  and  by  the  chain  of 
small  bones  that  are  enclosed  in  this  cavity. 

341.  But   little  is  known 

of  the  functions  of  the  in-  ^'^-  ■'^*- 

TERNAL  ear;  its  parts  are 
filled  with  a  watery  fluid  in 
which  the  filaments  of  the 
auditory  nerve  terminate. 

342.  The  auditory 
NERVE,  like  the  optic,  has 
but  one  function,  that  of 
special  sensibility,  or  trans- 
mitting sound  to  the  brain. 
The  nerves  which  furnish 
the  ear  with  ordinary  sensi- 
bility proceed  from  the  fifth 
pair. 

343.  The  transmission  of  sound  through  the  different  parts 
of  the  ear  will  now  be  explained  by  the  aid  of  Fig.  152.  The 
vibrations  of  the  air  are  collected  by  the  External  ear  and 
conducted  through  the  tube  (1)  to  the  drum  (2).  From  the 
drum  of  the  ear,  the  vibrations  pass  along  the  chain  of  bones 
(3,  4,  5).  The  bone  (5)  communicates  with  the  Internal  ear 
(7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  11,  11,  12,  12,  12).  From  the  Internal  ear 
the  impression  is  carried  to  the  brain  by  the  Auditory  nerve 
(13).     (Figs.  153,  154.) 


Fig.  154.  A  Yietv  of  the  Auditoky  Nerve. 
— 1,  The  spinal  cord.  2,  The  medulla  oblon- 
gata. 3,  The  lower  part  of  the  brain.  4,  The 
anditory  nerve.  5,  A  branch  to  the  semicir- 
cular canals.    6,  A  branch  to  the  cochlea. 


What  is  the  function  of  the  external  ear?     The  middle  ear?    The  internal  ear? 
•f  the  nerve  of  hearing.     Explain  the  transmission  of  sounds  by  Fig.  152. 


Speak 


166 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 


.%M 


I  41.  Hygiene  of  the  Sense  of  Hearing. 
344.  Acuteness  in  hearing  requires  perfection  in  the  struc- 
ture and  functions  of  the  different  parts  of  the  ear  and  that 
portion  of  the  brain  from  which  the  auditory  nerve  proceeds. 

T^       ,^.  Observation    1.  —  The    com- 

FiG.  155. 

mon  causes  of  impaired  hear- 
ing are  a  thickening  of  the 
drum  of  the  ear,  an  accumu- 
lation of  wax  upon  it?  exterior 
surface,  a  closure  of  the  Eus- 
tachian tube,  disease  of  the 
brain,  palsy  of  the  auditory 
nerve  and  destruction  of  the 
middle  and  internal  ear.  It 
is  injurious  to  put  the  heads 
of  pins  into  the  ear,  as  they 
frequently  cause  inflammation. 
The  wax  can  be  softened  by 
dropping  into  the  tube  some 
oil,  and  in  a  few  hours  remove 
it  by  injecting  warm  soap-suds 
into  the  ear. 

2. — When  worms    and    in- 
sects  find  their  way  into  the 
Fig.  155.  The  Distribution  of  the  Fifth  Pair     tube  of  the  external  ear,  they 


DF  Nerves.— 1,  The  orbit  for  the  ej'e.  2,  The 
upper  jaw.  3,  The  tongue.  4,  The  lower  jaw. 
5,  The  fifth  pair  of  nerves  (trigemim).  6,  The 
first  branch  of  this  nerve  that  passes  to  the  eye. 
9, 10, 11,  12, 13,  U,  Divisions  of  this  branch.  7, 
The  second  branch  that  passes  to  the  teeth  of  the 
npper  jaw.  15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,  Divisions  of  this 
branch.     8,  Tlie  third  branch  that  is  distributed 


can  usually  be  driven  out  by 
dropping  in  warm  olive  oil. 

345.  Searing    is    im- 
proved by  cultivation  from 
the  habit  of   attention  to 
„„     the    faintest    impressions 

to  the  tongue  and  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw.    2o,  ^ 

The  division  of  this  branch  ff7Mstato7-y).    24,  The  made  Upon  the  ear.       ThuS 

division  that  is  distributed  to  the  teeth  of  the  xv  ^    skilled     mUSlCiaU    will 
lower  jaw.  ,        ,  , .  ,    , 

detect  the  least  discord  in 

the  blended  effects  of  different  instruments  in  a  large  orchestra. 

By  hearing  we  are  enabled  to  appreciate  the  tone,  the 

force  and  the  direction  of  sounds,  and  also  to  gain  informa- 


Upon  what  does  acuteness  of  hearing  depend  ?  Give  some  of  the  causes  of  impaired 
hearing.  IIow  can  insects  be  removed  from  the  ear?  How  is  nicety  of  hearing  ac- 
quired?    How  does  hearing  increase  our  happiness? 


SPECIAL   SENSES.  167 

tion  from  the  spoken  words  of  other  persons,  which  makes 
this  sense  but  little  inferior  to  sight. 

§  4'2.  Anatomy  op  the  Organs  of  Taste. 

346.  Taste  is  the  sense  by  which  we  perceive  the  flavor  or 
relish  of  a  thing.  This  sense  differs  from  the  other  special 
senses,  because  it  requires  actual  contact  of  the  substances  to 
be  tasted,  and  these  must  be  either  naturally  fluid  or  par- 
tially dissolved  by  the  saliva. 

347.  The  Tongue  is  the  principal  organ  of  taste,  though 
the  sides  of  the  cheeks  and  upper  part  of  the  throat  share  in 
this  function.  It  is  a  muscular  organ,  and  from  the  variety 
and  arrangement  of  the  muscles  it  is  capable  of  various 
movements.  If  dry,  hard  substances  are  taken  into  the 
mouth,  the  tongue  brings  them  in  contact  with  the  saliva  to 
be  dissolved.  It  not  only  aids  in  the  mastication,  but  in 
the  swallowing,  of  food. 

The  surface  of  the  tongue  is  thickly  studded  with  papilla 
or  points  of  various  forms ;  these  give  this  organ  a  velvety 
appearance.  To  these  points  the  Gustfatory,  or  nerve  of  taste, 
is  distributed.  When  fluids  are  taken  into  the  mouth,  the 
papillae  dilate  and  erect  themselves,  and  the  particular  sensa- 
tion excited  is  carried  to  the  brain  by  this  nerve.     (Fig.  155.) 

348.  In  all  Mammals  the  tongue  has  nearly  the  same  struc- 
ture. In  Birds  it  is  generally  cartilaginous  and  without  ner- 
vous papillse,  so  their  taste  cannot  be  acute.  In  some  Reptiles 
the  tongue  is  fleshy  and  large.  In  Serpents  it  is  sharp  and 
forked.  In  the  Frog  the  tongue  is  darted  out  with  great 
quickness  of  motion  to  catch  the  insects  on  which  it  feeds. 
The  tongue  of  the  Bee  forms  a  little  tube  through  which 
it  sucks  up  the  juices  of  flowers. 

§  43.  Physiology  of  the  Sense  of  Taste. 

349.  The  Use  of  Taste  is  to  guide  men  and  animals  in 

What  is  Taste?  How  docs  it  differ  fi-om  the  othftr  senses?  Name  the  principal  orgHn 
of  Tasto.  Give  its  strncti;re.  Speak  of  the  nerve  of  Taste.  Speak  of  the  tongiu  '» 
Mammals.    In  Birds.    In  Reptiles.     In  the  Bee.     Wliat  is  tho  use  of  Taste? 


168  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 

the  selection  of  their  food  and  to  warn  them  against  the  in- 
troduction of  injurious  articles  into  the  stomach. 

This  sense  has  been  made  to  vary  more  than  any  other  by 
the  refinements  of  social  life.  It  is  modified  by  habit,  and 
not  unfrequently  those  articles  which  at  first  were  disgusting 
become  highly  agreeable  by  persevering  in  the  use  of  them, 
as  in  learning  to  chew  tobacco  and  medicinal  roots. 

350.  Substances  which  have  an  agreeable  and  healthy  taste 
excite  a  flow  of  saliva,  and  digestion  is  better  performed.  The 
relish,  however,  diminishes  as  hunger  is  appeased.  If  indul- 
gence of  the  appetite  is  continued  beyond  the  necessities  for 
food,  nausea  will  compel  the  glutton  to  desist.  The  sympa- 
thy between  the  stomach  and  the  sense  of  taste  is  a  wise  pro- 
vision of  the  bountiful  Giver. 

Observation. — The  Sense  of  Taste  becomes  impaired  by  the  immoderate 
use  of  stimulants  and  condiments.  These  indulgences  lessen  the  sensi- 
bility of  the  nerve.  In  children  this  sense  is  usually  acute,  and  their 
preference  is  for  food  of  the  mildest  character. 

^  44,  Anatomy  of  the  Sense  of  Touch. 

351.  Touch  is  the  sense  that  enables  us  to  tell  whether  a 
body  is  rough  or  smooth,  cold  or  hot,  sharp  or  blunt.  This 
sense  and  feeling  resides  in  the  nerves  of  the  skin.     (P.  187.) 

352.  The  nerves  that  contribute  to  the  sense  of  touch  pro- 
ceed from  the  front  half  of  the  spinal  cord.  Where  sensa- 
tion is  most  acute  we  find  the  greatest  number  of  nervous  fila- 
ments. 

Observation. — The  sense  of  touch  varies  in  different  persons,  and  also 
in  individuals  of  different  ages.  Thus  the  sensibilities  of  the  child  are 
more  acute  than  those  of  the  adult. 

353.  The  sense  of  touch,  though  common  to  all  parts  of 
the  skin,  finds  its  highest  development  in  the  human  hand. 
The  delicacy  of  the  structure  of  its  covering,  the  different 
lengths  of  the  fingers,  with  their  pliancy,  the  opposing  thumb, 

Uow  is  Taste  varied?  How  modified?  How  does  Taste  affect  digestion?  How  is 
Taste  impaired?  What  sense  enables  us  to  distingnisli  the  qualities  of  bodies?  Where 
does  this  sense  reside?  What  connection  between  sensation  and  nervous  filaments? 
What  is  said  of  the  hand  ? 


SPECIAL   SENSES.  169 

all  contribute  to  make  it  an  instrument  of  grace  as  well  as 
an  element  of  power. 

354.  In  many  Mammals  the  lips  and  tongue  are  the  chief 
organs  of  touch.  In  the  Elephant  the  finger-like  projection 
at  the  end  of  the  trunk  possesses  acute  touch.  In  the  Horse 
the  lips  are  very  sensitive.  Fishes,  on  account  of  their  scales. 
are  nearly  insensible. 

355.  This  sense  is  modified  by  the  condition  of  the  brain 
and  nerves,  by  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  blood  supplied 
to  the  skin,  by  the  thickness  of  the  cuticle,  and  by  cultiva" 
tion. 

Observation. — Blind  persons,  by  whom  the  beauties  of  the  external 
world  cannot  be  seen,  cultivate  this  sense  to  such  a  degree  that  they 
can  distinguish  objects  with  great  accuracy;  and  the  rapidity  with 
which  they  read  books  prepared  for  their  use  is  a  convincing  proof  of 
the  niceness  and  extent  to  which  the  cultivation  of  this  sense  can  be 
carried. 

What  is  eaid  of  the  sense  of  Toucl.  in  the  lower  animals?    How  is  thia  sense  modified! 
Qive  observation  respecting  the  bliti. 

U  H 


170  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 

Fig.  156. 


Fid  156.  A  Representatiox  of  the  Brain,  Spinal  Cord  and  Spinal  Nerves. — 1,  The 
ccrcitrniii.  2,  The  cerebellum.  3,  3,  Spinal  cord.  4,  The  sciatic  nerve.  A.  Distribu- 
tion OF  THE  Olfactory  Nerve. — 1,  2,  Nerve  of  smell.  B.  Optic  Nerve. — 15,  The  nerve 
if  vision.  C.  The  Gustatory  Nerve. — 1,  2,  3.  4,  Branches  of  the  nerve  of  taste.  D.  AxJ- 
IMTORY  Nerve. — 13,  Nerve  of  hearing. 

OF  THE  SPKCIAL  SENSES. 
Sense  of  Sixiell,  Siglit,  Hearing,  Taste  and  Toticli. 

State  the  Anatomy,  Physiology  and  Hygiene  of  the  Special  Senses. 


APPENDIX. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

CARE    OF    THE   STCK.^ 


I  1,  In  every  home,  however  humble  or  dignified,  woman  is 
usually  the  Nurse.  Nature  seems  to  have  endowed  her  in  an 
especial  manner  to  minister  at  the  couch  of  disease  and  suffering. 
To  be  a  good  nurse  requires  a  high  type  of  womanhood;  she 
should  have  both  mental  and  physical  power,  blended  with  integ- 
rity and  Christian  trust. 

If  "good  nursing  is  half  the  cure,"  how  important  that  the 
daughter  be  early  taught  how  to  prepare  drinks  and  nourishments, 
to  administer  medicine,  and  to  perform  the  varied  and  important 
duties  of  the  faithful  nurse  ! 

In  the  first  stages  of  disease  it  is  always  proper  treatment  to  rest 
both  body  and  mind.  It  is  wrong  to  tempt  the  appetite  of  a  sick 
person  ;  the  disinclination  for  food  is  the  warning  of  Nature  that 
the  system  cannot  well  digest  it. 

The  beneficial  effects  of  bathing  can  hardly  be  over-estimated, 
but  the  mode  of  the  bath  should  be  directed  by  the  medical  ad- 
viser. The  best  time,  however,  for  bathing,  is  when  the  patient 
feels  most  vigorous  and  freest  from  exhaustion.  Care  is  necessary 
to  wipe  dry  the  skin,  particularly  between  the  fingers  and  toes,  and 
also  about  the  joints.  Rubbing  (friction)  from  a  brush,  moreen 
mitten  or  a  dry  flannel  that  has  been  saturated  with  salted  water 
tends  lo  relieve  restlessness  in  patients.  Chafing  with  the  naked 
hand,  making  the  movements  from  the  brain  and  spine  to  the 
limbs,  is  peculiarly  soothing,  particularly  if  performed  by  a  vig- 

What  is  proper  treatment  in  the  first  stages  of  disease  ?     State  some  of  the  duties  of 
ihe  nurse  in  the  sick-room. 

*From  the  importance  of  the  suggestions  in  this  chapter,  we  would 
advise  a  thorough  exercise  weekly  to  the  whole  school,  either  orally  or 
by  recitation. 

171 


172  APPENDIX. 

orous  and  healthy  person.    Air-baths  have  a  tranquilizing  influ- 
ence. 

The  physician  well  knows  that  his  attention  to  the  sick  is  quite 
unavailing  unless  the  nurse  obeys  his  directions;  for  a  nurse  or 
immediate  relatives  or  friends  of  the  sick  to  put  their  judgment 
in  opposition  to  that  of  the  physician  is  not  only  arrogant,  but 
endangers  the  patient.  The  room  for  the  sick  should  be  selected 
where  sunlight  may  enter,  and  as  far  from  external  noise  as  pos- 
sible. It  is  poor  economy,  not  to  say  unkind,  to  keep  a  sick  per- 
son in  a  small,  ill-arranged  bed-room,  when  a  more  spacious  and 
airy  room  is  kept  for  only  occasional  "  callers."  All  superfluous 
furniture  should  be  removed  from  the  sick-room. 

Quiet  should  reign  in  the  sick-room.  No  more  persons  should 
enter  or  remain  in  it  than  the  welfare  of  the  patient  demands.  It 
is  the  duty  of  the  physician  to  direct  when  visitors  should  be  ad- 
mitted or  excluded,  and  the  nurse  should  enforce  the  directions. 
The  movements  of  the  attendants  should  be  gentle :  no  bustling  to 
"  clear  up  the  room  "  at  a  fixed  time ;  this  should  be  done  quietly, 
and  when  it  will  give  the  least  annoyance  to  the  sick.  (It  may  be 
necessary  to  use  a  damp  cloth  in  dusting  the  furniture,  also  the 
carpet,  especially  if  the  patient  has  disease  of  the  lungs.)  Creak- 
ing hinges  should  be  oiled;  shutting  doors  violently  and  heavy 
walking  avoided.  All  unnecessary  conversation  should  be  deferred. 
If  a  colloquy  must  be  carried  on,  let  the  tone  be  so  high  that  the 
patient,  if  interested,  can  thoroughly  comprehend  it. 

The  making  of  the  bed  is  often  badly  conducted.  All  bunches 
should  be  removed,  the  material  of  the  bed  laid  even  and  a  thin 
quilt  spread  smoothly  over  a  mattress.  When  convenient,  have 
the  head  of  the  bed  northerly  (62),  and  so  situated,  at  least,  that 
the  sick  man  may  look  on  something  more  pleasurable  than  a  table 
of  glasses  and  phials.  A  nurse  should  never  manifest  impatience 
in  arranging  the  pillows,  but  try  to  adapt  them  to  the  comfort  of 
the  weary  patient. 

All  utensils  employed  in  the  sick-room  should  be  kept  clean 
Water  designed  for  the  patient  to  drink  should  not  stand  long  in 
an  open  glass  or  pitcher,  but  be  given  fresh  from  a  spring  or  well. 
A  very  sick  person  is  fatigued  by  being  raised  to  receive  drinks; 
hence  a  bent  tube  or  a  cup  with  a  spout  should  be  used. 

Both  the  apparel  and  the  bed-linen  should  be  changed  more  fre- 
quently in  sickness  than  in  health,  and  oftener  in  acute  than  in 

State  the  location  of  the  room.    Quiet.   Arrangeiiientof  the  bed.   Apparel  and  bed-linen 


APPENDIX.  173 

chronic  diseases.  All  clothing,  whether  from  the  laundry  or 
bureau,  should  be  well  dried  and  warmed  by  a  fire  previous  to 
being  put  on  the  bed  or  the  patient. 

No  agent  is  of  more  importance  to  the  sick-room  than  pure  air; 
hence  the  nurse  with  all  convenient  speed  should  remove  every- 
thing that  can  emit  an  unpleasant  odor.  She  should  be  chary  of 
keeping  ripe  fruits  or  bouquets  of  flowers  any  length  of  time  in  the 
sick-chamber.  When  a  disinfectant  is  needed,  procure  some  at 
the  druggist's.  To  change  quickly  and  effectively  the  air  of  the 
sick-room,  cover  the  patient's  bed  with  an  extra  blanket  and 
closely  envelop  his  head  and  neck,  except  the  mouth  and  nose ; 
the  door  and  windows  can  then  be  safely  opened  for  a  short  time 
without  detriment.  After  the  windows  are  closed,  retain  the  extra 
coverings  on  the  patient  until  the  room  is  of  proper  warmth. 
Unless  duly  protected,  the  patient  should  never  feel  currents  of  air, 
although  fresh  air  should  be  constantly  admitted  into  the  sick 
room.  (It  is  preferable  to  have  pure  air  introduced  from  an  ad- 
joining apartment.)  Few  persons  realize  the  necessity  of  fresh  air 
being  constantly  admitted  into  an  occupied  room,  whether  by  the 
healthy  or  the  sick.  The  air  exhaled  from  the  lungs  contains  not 
only  carbonic  acid  gas,  but  a  vapor  which  gives  the  peculiar  odor 
to  the  breath  (159).  All  know  its  stifling  character  that  have 
opened  a  close  chamber  that  has  been  occupied  during  the  night. 
Disease  may  be  contracted  by  inhaling  this  vapor  of  respiration, 
as  well  as  by  actual  contact  with  contagious  matter. 

A  well-adjusted  thermometer  is  indispensable,  as  the  feelings  of 
the  patient  or  nurse  are  not  to  be  relied  on  as  a  true  index  of  the 
temperature  of  the  room.  Regulating  the  warmth  of  the  patient  is 
one  of  the  many  duties  of  the  nurse.  There  is  a  "  sweating  temper- 
ature." The  patient  should  no  more  be- allowed  to  complain  of 
too  much  heat,  without  an  attempt  at  its  reduction,  than  he  should 
be  permitted  to  remain  chilly  when  the  removal  is  possible. 

The  nurse  should  not  confine  herself  to  the  sick-room  longer 
than  six  hours  at  a  time.  She  should  exercise  daily  in  the  open 
air,  also  eat  and  sleep  as  regularly  as  possible.  No  doubts  or  fears 
of  the  patient's  recovery,  either  by  a  look  or  a  word,  should  be  com- 
municated by  the  nurse  in  the  chamber  of  the  sick;  this  duty 
devolves  upon  the  physician. 

Medicines  assist  the  natural  powers  of  the  system  to  remove  dis- 
ease.    They  should  be  given  regularly,  judiciously  and  with  a 

Ventilation  of  the  sick-room.    Temperature.    What  is  tlie  use  of  medicine? 
15  » 


174  APPENDIX. 

cheerful  manner,  and  administered  as  directed  by  the  physician. 
Life  itself  is  often  at  the  mercy  of  the  nurse,  and  depends  on  the 
faithful  discharge  of  her  duty. 

Drinks  have  a  more  decided  influence  upon  the  system  than  is 
generally  admitted.  They  may  be  acid  or  alkaline,  cold  or  hot,  as 
the  condition  of  the  patient  requires.  The  nurse  should  never 
depart  from  the  quality  of  the  drink,  nor  even  exceed  the  due  of 
prescribed  quantity.  Giving  "  herb-teas  "  without  the  sanction  of 
the  physician  may  cause  serious  evil. 

In  diseases  of  a  typhoid  character,  and  also  in  chronic  ailments, 
where  prostration  from  the  waste  of  tissues  and  diminished  genera- 
tion of  animal  heat  exists  after  the  subsidence  of  active  disease 
(when  solid  food  cannot  be  taken),  the  gradual  introduction  into 
the  system  of  the  elements  of  food  that  is  easily  digested  and 
assimilated  becomes  an  important  matter.  These  elements  (the 
albuminous,  saccharine  and  oleaginous  substances  of  food,  together 
with  an  increased  amount  of  carbon)  are  found  in  the  admixture 
of  refined  sugar  with  sweet  pure  milk  and  a  small  amount  of  pure 
alcoholic  spirits  in  the  form  of  "  milk  punch." 

Solid  food^  as  masticating  beef  steak  or  dry  toasted  crackers,  is 
often  preferable  to  gruels  and  other  liquid  food,  especially  when 
it  is  necessary  to  excite  an  action  in  the  salivary  and  mucous 
glands.  The  food  of  the  sick  should  be  prepared  in  the  neatest 
and  most  careful  manner,  and  the  nurse  ought  to  obey  implicitly 
the  physician's  directions  about  diet.  AVhen  a  patient  is  con- 
valescent, the  desire  for  food  is  generally  strong ;  great  care,  firm- 
ness and  patience  is  required  that  the  food  be  j)repared  suitably 
and  given  at  the  proper  time. 

We  append  a  few  modes  of  preparing  nourishment  for  the  sick. 

Crust  Coffee. — Take  light,  sweet  bread  or  crackers,  and  brown 
them  thoroughly  as  you  would  coffee  berry ;  when  wanted  for  use, 
pour  over  boiling  water  (the  crust  will  admit  of  several  replenish- 
ings  of  boiling  water) ;  add  sugar  and  cream  to  suit  the  condition 
of  the  patient. 

Gruels. — Corn  meal  requires  to  be  boiled  several  hours  to  be 
suitable  nourishment  for  the  sick.  The  mode  of  preparing  gruel 
should  be  suited  to  the  case  and  directed  by  the  physician.  Wheat, 
or  oat-meal,  farina  and  sago,  can  be  prepared  in  less  time,  though 
they  must  be  well  cooked.     Add  salt  while  cooking. 

What  is  said  of  food  and  drinks?  Name  the  means  of  nourishment,  and  tell  how  they 
aiay  be  prepared. 


APPENDIX.  175 

Egg  Gruel. — Take  the  yolks  of  two  eggs,  boiled  hard,  and  with 
a  knife  reduce  them  to  a  fine  powder ;  beat  this  into  a  flour  gruel 
made  of  new  milk:  salt  and  spices  may  be  added  if  the  condition 
of  the  patient  admits. 

Beef  Tea. — Meat  contains  principles  that  may  be  extracted, 
Bome  by  cold,  others  by  warm,  and  others,  again,  by  boiling,  water ; 
it  should  be  cut  very  fine,  and  submitted  for  three  hours  each  time, 
in  succession,  to  half  its  weight  of  cold,  of  warm  and  of  boiling 
water;  the  fluids  strained  from  the  first  and  second  macerations 
are  to  be  mixed  with  that  strained  from  the  boiling  process,  and 
the  mixture  should  be  brought  to  a  boiling  heat  to  cook  it — the  fat 
skimmed  ofi";  add  a  few  drops  of  some  acid,  with  salt,  for  a  flavor. 

A  quicker,  though  less  nutritious,  mode  of  making  beef  tea,  is 
to  cut  beef  fine,  put  it  in  a  glass  bottle,  cork  it,  place  it  in  a  kettle 
of  cold  water,  then  boil  the  beef  from  two  to  three  hours ;  when 
cooled,  strain  the  liquor  and  add  salt. 

§  S.  The  duty  of  the  Watcher  is  scarcely  less  responsible  th^n 
that  of  the  nurse,  and,  like  the  nurse,  she  should  ever  be  cheerful, 
kind,  firm  and  attentive  in  the  presence  of  the  patient. 

The  watcher  should  be  prompt,  and  reach  the  house  of  the  sick 
at  an  early  hour ;  before  entering  the  sick-room  she  should  eat  a 
simple,  nutritious  supper,  and  also  during  the  night  take  some 
plain  food.  She  should  be  furnished  with  an  extra  garment,  as  a 
heavy  shawl,  to  wear  toward  morning,  when  the  system  becomes 
exhausted. 

The  directions  about  the  sick,  especially  the  administration  of 
medicine,  should  be  written  for  the  temporary  watcher.  Whatever 
may  be  wanted  during  the  night  should  be  brought  into  the  sick- 
chamber  or  the  adjoining  room  before  the  family  retires  to  sleep, 
that  the  slumbers  of  the  patient  be  not  disturbed  by  haste  or 
searching  for  needed  articles. 

Sperm  candles  are  preferable  for  the  sick-room.  Kerosene,  in 
burning,  emits  a  disagreeable  odor,  often  annoying  to  the  patient. 
All  lights  ought  to  be  so  arranged  as  not  to  shine  or  be  reflected  in 
the  part  of  the  room  where  the  sick  lie. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  watchers  make  themselves  acceptable  to 
the  patient  by  exhausting  conversation.  If  two  watchers  are 
needed,  it  is  more  imperative  that  they  refrain  from  talking,  and 
particularly  whispering. 

Give  the  duties  of  the  Watcher.  What  directions  about  the  administration  of  med 
Icine  ?    What  lights  are  preferable  for  the  sick-room  1 


1 76  APPENDIX. 

Most  sick  persons  have  special  need  of  nourishment  about  four 
or  five  o'clock  in  the  morning. 

The  attendant  upon  the  sick  should  not  sit  between  the  patient 
and  the  fire,  and  also  should  avoid  sitting  in  the  current  of  air  that 
is  flowing  out  of  the  room. 

When  taking  care  of  the  sick,  light-colored  clothing  should  be 
worn  in  preference  to  dark  apparel,  especially  if  the  disease  la 
of  a  contagious  character.  It  is  always  safe  for  the  watcher  to 
change  her  apparel  worn  in  the  sick-chamber  before  entering 
upon  her  family  duties.  Disease  is  often  communicated  by  the 
clothing. 

It  can  hardly  be  expected  that  the  farmer  who  has  been  labor- 
ing hard  in  the  field,  or  the  mechanic  who  has  toiled  during  the 
day,  is  qualified  to  render  all  those  little  attentions  that  a  sick  per- 
son requires.  Hence,  would  it  not  be  more  benevolent  and  econo- 
mical to  employ  andjoa?/  watchers  who  are  qualified  by  knowledge 
and  training  to  perform  this  duty  in  a  faithful  manner,  while  the 
kindness  and  sympathy  of  friends  may  be  'practically  manifested 
by  assisting  to  defray  the  expenses  of  these  qualified  and  useful 
assistants? 

\  3.  The  Treatment  of  Wounds  or  Injuries. — Contusions 
or  bruises  are  generally  treated  by  the  injured  person  or  some 
member  of  the  family.  The  bruised  limb  should  rest,  be  kept 
moderately  warm,  bathed  frequently  with  tepid  water  and  chafed 
moderately  with  the  naked  hand. 

Incised  Wounds  ("  cuts"). — At  first  there  is  free  bleeding  from 
the  many  divided  capillaries.  If  no  large  vein  or  artery  is  severed, 
the  flow  of  blood  will  soon  cease ;  press  the  gaping  wound  together, 
and  trickle  on  cold  water  until  the  blood  and  all  foreign  matter 
is  removed ;  then  apply  narrow  strips  of  adhesive  plaster. 

The  union  of  the  divided  parts  is  effected  by  the  action  of  the 
blood-vessels,  and  not  by  "  healing  salves"  or  "  ointments."  The 
only  object  of  the  dressing  is  to  keep  the  parts  together  and  pro- 
tect the  wound  from  air  and  impurities.  Nature  performs  her 
own  cure.  Such  wounds  seldom  need  a  second  dressing,  and  should 
not  be  opened  till  the  incisions  are  healed.  To  lessen  the  liability 
of  a  reopening,  a  proper  position  for  the  union  should  be  regarded. 
If  the  wound  be  between  the  knee  and  ankle,  and  on  the  front 
part,  extend  the  knee  and  bend  up  the  ankle ;  if  on  the  back  part, 

What  caution  is  necessary  in  sitting  by  the  sick  ?     Give  the  manner  of  dressing  wounda 
—Bruises — Cuts. 


APPENDIX. 


177 


reverse  the  movement,  and,  in  general,  suit  the  position  to  tlie 
case. 

Lacerated  Wounds.— In  these  injuries,  the  jagged,  torn  parts 
do  not  heal  by  the 


II 


Fig.  157. 


first  intention,"  but 
"matter"  is  formed 
before  healing. 
Cleanse  the  parts 
with  cold  water  and 
apply  a  soft  poultice. 
All  wounds  made 
by  blunted  or 
pointed  instruments, 
as  nails,  should  be 
examined  by  a  sur- 
geon. 

Wounds  from 
Poisonous  Serpents  or 
Rabid  Animals 
should  have  cup- 
ping-glasses immediately  applied,  or  sucked  by  the  mouth.  Give 
freely  alcoholic  stimulants  until  a  physician  arrives. 

Observation. — Although  animal  poisons,  when  introduced  into  the 
circulating  fluid  through  the  broken  surface  of  the  skin,  frequently 
cause  death,  yet  they  can  be  taken  into  the  mouth  and  stomach  with 
comparative  impunity;  as  when  the  mucous  membrane  which  lines 
these  parts  is  not  broken,  poisons  are  rarely  absorbed. 

Fig.  158. 


Fig,  157.  a,  a,  Representation  of  Wounds  on  the  back 
part  of  the  fore-arm.  ft,  b.  Wounds  of  the  anterior  part 
of  the  arm  and  fore-arm.  By  bending  the  elbow  and 
wrist,  the  incisions  at  o,  a,  are  opened,  while  those  at  b,  b, 
are  closed.  Were  the  arm  extended  at  the  elbow  and 
wrist,  the  wounds  at  a,  a,  would  be  closed,  and  those  at 
6,  6,  would  be  opened. 


Fig.  158  REPSESENTa  the  Manner  of  applying  adhesire  stnps  to  wounds. 

Hemorrhage  from  Divided  Arteries  should  be  Ar- 
rested, otherwise  the  heart  soon  ceases  its  action,  and  the  person 
faints.  If  a  large  artery  is  wounded,  every  beat  of  the  pulse 
throws  out  the  blood  in  jerks.     Until  surgical  help  can  be  sum- 


Give  the  treatment  of  lacerated  wounds.    Wounds  from  rabid  animals. 

H* 


178 


APPENDIX. 


Pig.  159. 


moned,  the  flow  of  the  blood  may  be  stopped  either  by  compress« 
iiig  the  vessel  between  the  wound  and  the  heart,  or  by  compress- 
ing the  end  of  the 
artery  next  the  heart 
in  the  wound. 

After     compression 
as  described  and  illus- 
trated, take  a  square 
piece     of     cloth,    or 
handkerchief,  twist  it 
cornerwise,  and  tie  a 
hard  knot  in  the  mid- 
dle.   Place   the  knot 
over    the    artery    be- 
tween the  wound  and 
the    heart,   carry   the 
ends  around  the  limb 
and  tie  loosely.  Place 
a     stick     under     the 
handkerchief  near  the 
last  tie,  and  twist  till 
the  fingers  can  be  re- 
moved from  the  com- 
pression without  a  re- 
turn of  the  bleeding. 
When  an  artery  in  a 
limb  be  cut,  elevate  the 
limb  as  far  as  possible, 
till  the  bleeding  ceases. 
BuE]srs  AND  Scalds. — When  blisters  are  formed,  the  outer  skin 
is  separated  from  the  other  layer  or  cuticle  by  the  effusion  of 
serum,  or  water ;  this  fluid  should  be  let  free  by  puncturing  the 
cuticle,  care  being  taken  not  to  remove  the  thin  raised  skin,  as  it 
makes  the  best  possible  protection  to  the  sensitive,  inflamed  tissues 
beneath.     When  this  thin  outside  layer  of  skin  is  removed,  imme- 
diately cover  the  denuded  parts  with  wheat  flour,  or  a  plaster  made 
of  lard  and  bees'-wax  or  the  white  of  an  egg;  in  a  word,  substi- 
tute a  cuticle  to  protect  the  exposed  nerves  from  the  air.     When 
dressings  are  applied,  they  should  not  be  removed  until  they  be- 
come dry  and  irritating. 


Fig.  159.  The  Manner  of  Compressins  Divided  Ar- 
teries.— A,  Compressing  the  large  artery  of  the  arm 
with  the  thumb.  B,  The  subclavian  artery.  C,  Com- 
pressing the  divided  extremity  of  an  artery  in  the  wound 
with  a  finger. 


How  may  hemorrhage  be  arrested  ?     Speak  of  Burns  and  Scalds,  and  their  treatment 


iLPPE:N'DIX. 


179 


To  prevent  the  formation  of  blisters  when  only  a  small  patch  of 
the  skin  is  scalded  or  burned,  apply  steadily  cold  water  until  the 
smarting  pain  ceases ;  then  put  on  a  simple  dressing,  "  not  to  take 
out  the  fire  or  to  heal  it,"  but  to  protect  the  injured  membrane. 

When  the  skin  in  particular  spots  is  exposed  to  excessive  pres- 
sure or  friction,  it  becomes  too  much  thickened,  producing  '^  Corns" 
These  are  not  necessarily  confined  to  the  feet,  but  are  produced  in 
front  of  the  clavicle  of  the  soldier  from  the  pressure  of  his  musket, 
or  on  the  knee  of  the  cobbler.  The  pain  of  the  callosity  is  due  to 
its  exciting  inflammation  in  the  sensitive  dermis  upon  which  it 


Pig.  160. 


Ftg.  161, 


Fig.  160.  The   Method   of   Applying  the  Knotted  Handkerchief,  to  compress  a 
divided  artery.     A,  B,  Track  of  the  brachial  artery. 
Fig.  161.  A,  C,  The  track  of  the  femoral  artery;  the  compress  applied  near  the  groin 

presses.     Remove  the  pressure,  and  the  afiected  part  is  restored  to 
its  healthy  state. 

Feost-bite  is  usually  manifested  first  upon  parts  unprotected 
by  covering,  as  the  face  or  ears,  and  especially  the  nose.  In  such 
case  the  skin  first  becomes  red,  from  congestion  of  the  dilated 
capillary  vessels ;  next  it  becomes  bluish,  from  arrest  of  the  circu- 
lation; and  afterward  of  a  dead  white  hue.  To  restore  circulation 
and  sensibility  rub  the  frozen  part  with  snow  or  apply  iced  water. 
Keep  the  sufferer  at  first  in  a  cold  room,  and  let  the  return  to  a 
higher  temperature  be  gradual  and  cautious,  or  gangrene  may 
supervene. 


How  may  the  formation  of  blisters  be  avoided  in  slight  burns?     How  are  " Coroa * 
produced  ?     Speak  of  Frost-bitp. 


1 80  APPENDIX. 

The  Chilblain  is  not  produced  by  the  action  of  cold,  but  by  the 
effect  of  heat  on  the  chilled  extremity.  Bathe  the  inflamed  parts 
with  a  mixture  of  sweet  oil,  glycerine  and  camphorated  spirits. 

§  4,  Asphyxia — Treatment  of  Apparently  Drowned  Persons. 

"  Drowning. — 1st.  Treat  the  patient  instantly  on  the  spot,  in  the 
open  air,  freely  exposing  the  face,  neck  and  chest  to  the  breeze, 
except  in  severe  weather.  2d.  In  order  to  clear  the  throat,  place 
the  patient  gently  on  the  face,  with  one  wrist  under  the  forehead, 
that  all  fluid,  and  the  tongue  itself,  may  fall  forward  and  leave 
the  entrance  into  the  trachea  or  windpipe  free.  3d.  To  excite 
respiration  or  breathing,  turn  the  patient  slightly  on  his  side  and 
apply  some  irritating  or  stimulating  agent  to  the  nostrils,  as  harts- 
horn or  dilute  ammonia,  cologne,  etc.  4th.  Make  the  face  warm 
by  brisk  friction,  then  dash  cold  water  upon  it.  If  not  successful, 
lose  no  time  to  imitate  respiration. 

"Artificial  Respiration. — First,  place  the  patient  on  the 
face  and  turn  the  body  gently  but  completely  on  the  side  and  slightly 
beyond;  then  again  on  the  face,  repeating  alternately  these  move- 
ments deliberately  and  perseveringly^i^eew  times  only  in  a  minute. 

"  Observation  1. — When  the  face  position  is  resumed,  make  a  uniform 
and  efficient  pressure  along  the  spinal  column  (back-bone),  removing 
the  pressure  immediately  before  turning  on  the  side;  continue  these 
measures.  (The  pressure  increases  the  expiration,  and  rotation  com- 
mentjes  inspiration.) 

"  2. — When  the  patient  lies  on  the  chest,  this  cavity  is  compressed 
by  the  weight  of  the  body,  and  expiration  takes  place ;  when  turned  on 
the  side,  this  pressure  is  removed,  and  inspiration  occurs. 

"3. — Rub  the  limbs  upward  with /rm  pressure  and  with  energy,  to 
aid  the  return  of  venous  blood  to  the  heart. 

"4. — Rub  the  body  briskly  till  it  is  dry  and  warm,  then  dash  cold 
water  upon  it  and  repeat  the  rubbing. 

"  Avoid  the  immediate  removal  of  the  patient,  as  it  involves  a 
dangerous  loss  of  time.  Avoid  the  warm  bath.  Substitute  for  the 
patient's  wet  clothing,  if  possible,  such  other  covering  as  can  be 
instantly  procured,  each  bystander  supplying  a  coat  until  flannel 
blankets  are  obtained.  To  excite  inspiration,  let  the  surface  of 
the  body  be  slapped  briskly  from  time  to  time  with  the  hand." 

{From  Marshall  HalVs  Treatment  of  Asphyxia  from  Drowning,  Chloroform  or  Gas.) 

IIow  are  Chilblains  produced  ?  How  may  asphyxiated  persons  he  recovered  ?  State 
the  method  of  Artificial  Respiration. 


APPENDIX.  181 

POISONS  AND    THEIR  ANTIDOTES. 

I  5,  Every  mother  or  housekeeper  should  know  and  have  at 
hand  some  available  remedies  for  the  common  poisons  which  are 
frequently  taken  either  by  accident  or  design.  Nearly  every  poi- 
son has  its  antidote,  which,  if  used  at  once,  may  prevent  much  suf- 
fering and  even  death. 

When  known  that  poison  has  been  taken  into  the  stomach,  the 
first  thing  is  to  evacuate  it  by  the  use  of  the  stomach-pump  or  an 
emetic,  unless  vomiting  takes  place  spontaneously. 

As  an  emetic,  ground  Mustard  mixed  in  warm  water  is  always 
safe.  Take  one  tablespoonful  to  one  pint  of  warm  water.  Give 
the  patient  one-half  in  the  first  instance  and  the  remainder  in  fif- 
teen minutes,  if  vomiting  has  not  commenced.  In  the  interval 
drink  copious  draughts  of  warm  water.  Irritate  the  throat  with  a 
feather  or  the  finger,  to  induce  vomiting.  After  vomiting  has 
begun,  give  mucilaginous  drinks,  such  as  flaxseed  tea,  gum-arabic 
water,  or  slippery  elm. 

If  the  patient  is  drowsy,  give  a  strong  infusion  of  cold  cofiee, 
keep  him  walking,  slap  smartly  on  the  back,  use  electricity;  it  may 
be  well  to  dash  cold  water  on  the  head  to  keep  the  patient  awake. 
After  the  poison  is  evacuated  from  the  stomach,  to  sustain  vital 
action  give  warm  water  and  wine  or  brandy.  If  the  limbs  are 
cold,  apply  warmth  and  friction. 

In  ALL  cases  of  poisoning  call  immediately  a  physician,  as  the 
after-treatment  is  of  great  importance. 

Poisons.  Antidotes  or  Remedies  fob  Poisons. 

Aconite  (Monkshood). 
Belladonna  (Deadly  Nightshade). 
Bryony. 
Camphor. 

^.  >  (Water  Hemlock). 

Cicuta     ) 

Croton  Oil. 

Digitalis  (Foxglove). 

Dulcamara  (Bitter-Sweet). 

Gamboge. 

Hyoscyamus  (Henbane). 

Laudanum. 


For  Vegetable  poisons  give  an  emetic 
oi Mustard;  drink  freely  of  warm 
water ;  irritate  the  throat  with  a 
feather  to  induce  vomiting.  Keep 
the  patient  awake  until  a  phy- 
sician arrives. 


When  poisons  have  been  taken,  what  is  to  be  done  ?    Name  the  most  common  poisow 
and  their  antidotes. 

16 


182 


APPENDIX. 


Poisons. 
Lobelia. 
Morphine. 
Opium. 
Paregoric. 

Sanguinaria  (Blood-Eoot). 
Savin  Oil. 

Spigelia  (Carolina  Pink). 
Stramonium  (Thorn  Apple). 
Strychnine  (Nux  Vomica). 
Tobacco. 


Antidotes  or  Remedies  for  Pouoms. 


For  Vegetable  poisons  give  an  emetic 
of  Mustard  ;  drink  freely  of  warm 
water ;  irritate  the  throat  with  a 
feather  to  induce  vomiting.  Ksep 
the  patient  awake  until  a  phy- 
sician arrives. 


Arnica. 


Vinegar  and  water. 


Prussic  Acid. 

Bitter  Almonds  (Oil  of). 

Laurel  Water. 


} 


Drink,  at  once,  one  teaspoonful  of 
Water  of  Hartshorn  (ammonia) 
in  one  pint  of  water. 


Ammonia  (Hartshorn). 

Potash. 

Soda. 


Antidote  is  Vinegar  or  Lemon  Juice, 
followed  with  sweet,  castor  or  lin- 
seed oil.  Thick  cream  is  a  sub- 
stitute for  oil. 


Iodine. 


1  Starch  or  wheat  flour  beat  in  water. 
/     Take  a  Mustard  emetic. 


}Take,  at  once,  a  Mustard  emetic ; 
drink  copious  draughts  of  warm 
water,  followed  with  oil  or  cream. 


Lunar  Caustic  (Nitrate  of  Silver). 


Two  teaspoonfuls  of  table  salt  (chlo- 
ride of  sodium)  mixed  in  one  pint 
of  water. 


Corrosive  Sublimate  (bug  poison). 
White  Precipitate. 
Red  Precipitate. 
Vermilion. 


Beat  the  Whites  of  six  Eggs  in  one 
quart  of  cold  water ;  give  a  cup- 
ful every  two  minutes,  to  induce 
vomiting.  A  substitute  for  white 
of  eggs  is  soap-suds  slightly  thick- 
ened with  wheat  flour.  Emetics 
should  only  be  given  by  a  phy- 
sician. 


APPENDIX. 


183 


Poisons. 

Arsenic. 

Cobalt  (fly  powder), 

King's  Yellow. 

Ratsbane. 

Scheele's  Green. 


J 


Acetate  of  Lead  (Sugar  of  Lead). 

White  Lead. 

Litharge. 


Antimony  (Wine  of). 
Tartar  Emetic. 


Pearl-ash. 

Ley  (from  wood-ashes). 

Salts  of  Tartar. 


Sulphuric  Acid  (Oil  of  Vitriol). 
Nitric  "      (Aquafortis). 

Muriatic      "      (Marine). 
Oxalic         " 


Matches  (Phosphorus). 
Eat  Exterminator. 

Verdigris. 
Blue  Vitriol. 


Sting  of  Insects. 


Tainted  Crabs,  Oysters  or  Fish. 

Charcoal  Fumes. 

(tus  or  Burning  Fluid. 


} 


} 


} 
} 


Antidotes  or  Rkmedies  for  Poisons. 
Use  a  stomach-pump  as  quickly  aa 
possible,  or  give  a  Mustard  emetic 
until  one  is  obtained.  After  free 
vomiting,  give  largo  quantities 
of  Calcined  Magnesia.  The  anti- 
dote for  Arsenic  ia  Hydrated  Per- 
oxide of  Iron. 

Use  a  Mustard  emetic,  followed  by 
Epsom  or  Glauber  Salts.  Tlie 
antidote  is  diluted  Sulphuric  Acid. 

The  antidote  is  ground  Nutgall.  A 
substitute,  oak  or  Peruvian  bark, 
followed  by  a  teaspoonful  of  pare- 

.     goric. 

Drink  freely  of  Vinegar  and  water, 
followed  with  a  mucilage,  as  flax- 
seed tea. 

Drink  largely  of  water  or  a  muci- 
lage. It  is  important  that  some- 
thing he  given  quickly  to  neutralize 
the  acid.  The  antidote  is  Calcined 
Magnesia.  Chalk,  lime,  strong 
soap-suds,  are  substitutes  for  mag- 
nesia. 

Give  two  tablespoonfuls  of  Calcined 
Magnesia,  followed  by  mucilagi- 
nous drinks. 

The  antidote  is  Cooking  Soda  or 
White  of  Eggs.  Drink  milk  freely. 

Ammonia,  or  cooking  soda  moist- 
ened with  water,  applied  in  the 
form  of  a  paste.  The  wound  may 
be  sucked,  followed  by  applica' 
tions  of  water. 

Use  a  Mustard  emetic,  and  drink 
freely  of  vinegar  and  water. 

Fresh  air  and  Artificial  Kespira- 
tion. 


184 


APPENDIX. 


SUMMARY— SYNTHETIC  TOPICAL  REVIEW. 


Sect,  1.  Definitions. 

"      2.  Anatomy  of. 

"      3.  Physiology  of. 

"      4.  Hygiene  of. 

"      5.  Comparative  Osteology. 

••      6.  Anatomy  of. 

•'      7.  Physiology  of. 

"      8.  Hygiene  of. 

"      9.  Comparative  Myology. 

"  10.  Anatomy  of. 

"  11.  Physiology  of. 

"  12.  Hygiene  of. 

"  13.  Comparative  Splanchnology 

"  14.  Anatomy  of. 

"  15.  Physiology  of. 

*  16.  Hygiene  of. 

*  17.  Anatomy  of. 

"  18.  Physiology  of. 

'•  19.  Hygiene  of. 

"  20.  Comparative  Pneumonology. 

"  21.  Anatomy  of. 

•*  22.  Physiology  of. 

"  23.  Hygiene  of. 

«'  24.  The  Blood,  anatomy  of. 

"  25.  Physiology  of. 

"  26.  Hygiene  of. 

'•  27.  Comparative  Angiology. 

"  28.  Assimilation,  Secondary. 

"  29.  Anatomy  of. 

"  30.  Physiology  oC 

"  31.  Hygiene  of. 

Comparative  Neurology. 


} 


32. 

33. 
34. 
35. 

36. 
37. 
38. 


Chap.  I. 
General  Remarks. 

Chap.  II. 
The  Bones. 


Chap,  III. 
The.  Muscles. 

Chap.  IV. 

The  Digestive 

Organs. 

Chap.  V, 
The  Absorbents. 

Chap.  VI. 

The  Organs  of 
Respiration. 

Chap.  VII. 
The  Skin. 


Chap.  VIII, 
The  Circulation. 

Chap.  IX. 
Assimilation, 

Chap.  X. 

The  Nervous 

System. 


■  Smell. 


Sight. 


39.] 

40.  J-  Hearing. 

41.  J 


Chap.  XI. 
The  Organs  of 
Special  Sense. 


} 


Division  I. 

Motory 
Apparatus. 


Division  !!• 

Nutritive 

Apparatus. 


Division  IIL 

Nervous 
Apparatus. 


B 
B 
I—' 


'  42 

'  43.  i- Taste. 

'  44., 

"  1.  Care  of  the  Sick. 

'■"  2.  Watchers,  duty  of. 

"  3.  Treatment  of   Wounds,   Hemor    I         Chap.  XII. 
rhage  and  Burns,  '  f         Appendix. 

*  4,  Asphyxia. 

**  5,  Poisons  and  Antidotes, 

State  the  Anatomy,  the  Physiology  and  the  Hygiene  of  Mammals 


GLOSSARY. 


Ab-do'men.  [L.  abdo,  to  hide.]  That  part 
of  the  body  which  lies  between  tlie  tho- 
rax aud  the  bottom  of  the  pelvis. 

Ab-o-ma'sum.  [L.]  The  fourth  stomach  of 
a  ruminant  animal. 

Ab-80RP'tion.  [L.  ab,  and  swbeo,  to  suck 
up.]  The  imbibition  of  a  fluid  by  an 
animal  membrane  or  tissue. 

A-chil'lis.  a  term  applied  to  the  tendon 
of  the  two  large  muscles  of  the  leg. 

Al-bd'men.  [L.  albus,  white.]  An  animal 
substance  of  the  same  nature  as  the 
white  of  an  egg. 

Al've-o-lab.  [L.  alveolus,  a  socket.]  Per- 
taining  to  the  sockets  of  the  teeth. 

Am-phib'i-ans.  [Gr.  a/A</>i,  amphi,  both, 
aud  /3tos,  bios,  life.]  A  class  of  animals 
BO  formed  as  to  live  on  land  and  in 
water.  At  one  period  of  their  existence 
they  breathe  by  gills,  at  another  by 
lungs. 

A-nas'tomose.  fGr.]  The  communication 
of  arteries  and  veins  with  each  other. 

An-a-tom'i-cal.  Relating  to  the  parts  of 
the  body  when  dissected  or  separated. 

A-nat'o-mt.  [Gr.  ava,  ana,  through,  and 
To/u.rj,  tome,  a  cutting.]  The  description 
of  the  structure  of  animals.  The  word 
anatomy  properly  signifies  dissection. 

An-gi-ol'o-gt.  [Gr.  ayyeto;',  angeion,  a 
vessel,  and  Xoyof,  logos,  discourse.]  A 
description  of  the  vessels  of  the  body,  as 
the  veins  and  arteries. 

An-i-mal'cu-ue.  [L.  animalcula,  a  little 
animal.]  Animals  that  are  onl}'  percep- 
tible by  means  of  a  microscope. 

An-nu-lo'sa.  [L.  annulus,  a  ring.]  Fur- 
nished with  rings.  The  same  as  the  ar- 
ticulate animals. 

AN-TEN'NiE.  [L.  atitennse,  a  yard-arm.] 
The  jointed  horns  or  feelers  possessed  by 
(he  articulata  or  annulosa. 

16* 


An-te'ri-ob.  [L.]  Before  or  in  front  io 
place ;  opposed  to  posterior. 

A-ort'a.  [Gr.  aopTTj,  aorti;  from  arjp,  aer, 
air,  and  rrjpeia,  iereo,  to  keep.]  The  greal 
artery  that  arises  from  the  left  ventricle 
of  the  heart. 

Ap-pa-ra't0S.  [L.  apparo,  to  prepare.]  An 
assemblage  of  organs  designed  to  produce 
certain  results. 

Ap-pen»'ix.  [L.  ad,  and  pendeo,  to  hang 
from.]    Something  appended  or  added. 

A'que-ous.  [L.  aqua,  water.]  Partaking 
of  the  nature  of  water. 

A-rach'noid.  [Gr.  apaxvri,  arachne,  a  spi- 
der, and  eiSos,  eidos,  form.]  Resembling 
a  spider's  web ;  a  thin  mpmbrane  that 
covei-s  the  brain. 

Ab'bor.  [L.]  Arbor  vitse.  The  tree  of 
life.  A  term  applied  to  a  part  of  the 
brain. 

Ar'te-ry.  [Gr.  ar}p,.  aer,  air,  and  rqpeca, 
tereo,  to  keep;  because  the  ancients 
thought  that  the  arteries  contained  only 
air.]  A  tube  through  which  blood  flows 
from  the  heart. 

A-ktt-e'noid.  [Gr.  apvratva,  arufaina,  a 
ewer,  and  eiSos,  eidos,  form.]  The  name 
of  a  cartilage  of  the  larynx. 

As-phyx'i-a.  [Gr.  a,  a,  not,  and  <r<^v{ts, 
sphyxis,  pulse.]  Originally,  want  of 
pulse ;  now  used  for  suspended  respira- 
tion or  apparent  death. 

As-sim-i-la'tion.  [L.  ad  and  siinilis.]  The 
conversion  of  nutriment  into  the  fluid 
or  solid  substance  of  the  body. 

As-trag'a-lus.  [Gr.]  The  name  of  a  bon* 
of  the  foot;  one  of  the  tarsal  bones. 

Aud-it-o'ri-us.  [L.  attdio,  to  hear.]  Per- 
taining to  the  organ  of  hearing. 

Au'bi-cle.    [L.  auricula,  the  external  ear 
from  auris,  the  ear.]    A  cavity  of   the 
heart ;  the  "  deaf  ear." 

18ft 


186 


GLOSSARY. 


A-zote'.  [Qr.  a,  a,  not,  and  fa»j  zoe,  life.] 
Nitrogen.  One  of  the  constituent  ele- 
ments of  the  atmosphere;  so  named  be- 
cause it  will  not  sustain  life. 

Bi'CEPS.    [L.  Ms,  twice,  and  caput,  a  head.] 

A  name  applied  to   muscles  with  two 

heads  at  one  extremity. 
Bi-COs'PiDS.     [L.   bis,   two,  and   cuxpis,  a 

point.]    Teeth  that  have  two  points  upon 

their  crown. 
Bile.     [L.   bilis.]     A   viscid,   bitter  fluid 

secreted  by  the  liver. 
Bi-pen'ni-form.    [L.  bis,  two,  and  penna,  a 

feather.]     Having  fibres  on  each  side  of 

a  c/^mnion  tendon. 
Brach'i-al.    [L.  bi-achium.']    Belonging  to 

the  arm. 
Brain.      [Sax.  bragen.]      The    soft    mass 

or  viscus    enclosed    within    the   skull- 
bones. 
BKANce'i-iE.    [L.]    Gills;   a  terra  applied 

to  the  organs  of  respiration  in  certain 

animals  which  live  in  water. 
Bkonch'i-a,  -m.    [L.]     a  division  of   the 

trachea  that  passes  to  the  lungs. 
Beoxcd-i'tis.    [L.]    An  inflammation   of 

the  bronchia. 
Bna's.*;  Mu-co'SjE.    [L.  bursa,  a  purse,  and 

mucosa,  viscous.]    Small  sacs  containing 

a  viscid  fluid,  situated  about  the  joints, 

under  tendons. 

C^'CUM, -A.  [L.]  Blind;  the  name  given 
to  the  commencement  of  the  colon. 

Cal'cis.    [L.]    The  heel-bone. 

Cap'il-larv.  [L.  capillus,  a  hair.]  Re- 
sembling a  hair;  a  small  tube. 

Cap'sule.  [L.  capsula,  a  little  chest.]  A 
membranous  bag  enclosing  a  part. 

Car'bon.  [L.  carbo,  a  coal.]  Pure  char- 
coal. An  elementary  combustible  sub- 
stance. 

Car-bon'ic.     Pertaining  to  carbon. 

Car'di-ac.  [Or.  KapSia,  kardia,  heart.] 
Relating  to  the  heart,  or  upper  orifice 
of  the  stomach. 

Car'ne-a,  -m.  [L.  cam,  carnis,  flesh.] 
Fleshy. 

Car-niv'o-rou8.  [L.  caro,  flesh,  and  voro, 
to  eat.]    Eating  or  feeding  on  flesh. 

Ca-rot'id.  [Gr.  Kapoi,  karos,  lethargy.] 
The  great  arteries  of  the  neck  tlra,t  con- 
vey blood  to  the   head.     The  ancients 


supposed   drowsiness   to    be    seated    Id 
these  arteries. 

Car'pu8,  -I.     [L.]     The  wrist. 

Car'ti-lage.  [L.  cartilago.]  Gristle.  A 
smooth,  elastic  substance,  softer  than 
bone. 

Cau'dal.    [L.]     Pertaining  to  a  tail. 

Ca'va.  [L.]  Hollow.  Vena  Cava,  n  UAUif: 
given  to  the  two  great  veins  of  the  body. 

Cell.  [L.]  A  little  bag  or  bladder  con 
taining  fluid  or  other  matter. 

Cel'lu-lar.  [L.  cellula,  a  little  cell.]  Com 
posed  of  cells. 

Cer-e-b£l'lum.  [L.]  The  hinder  and  lown 
part  of  the  brain,  or  the  little  brain, 

Cer'e-bro-Spi'nal.  Relating  to  tho  brain 
and  spine. 

Cer'e-brum.  [L.]  The  front  and  large 
part  of  the  brain.  The  term  is  some- 
times applied  to  the  whole  contents  of 
the  cranium. 

Cer'vi-cal.  [L.  cen>ix,  the  neck.]  llelatiug 
to  the  neck. 

Chem'is-try.  [Gr.  kimia,  hidden  art.]  It 
relates  to  those  operations  by  which 
the  intimate  nature  of  bodies  is  changed, 
or  by  which  they  acquire  new  proper- 
ties. 

Chest.  [Sax.]  The  thorax;  the  trunk  of 
the  body  from  the  neck  to  the  abdomen. 

Chor'da, -iE.  [L.]  A  cord;  an  assemblage 
of  fibres. 

Cho'roid.  [Gr.  xoptov,  cTiorirm,.']  A  term 
applied  to  several  parts  of  the  body  that 
resemble  the  skin. 

Chyle.  [Gr.  x^^o?)  chulos,  juice.]  A  nutri- 
tive fluid,  of  a  whitish  appearance,  which 
is  extracted  from  food  by  the  action  of 
the  digestive  organs. 

Chime.  [Gr.xu/JioSjC^Mmos,  juice.]  A  kind 
of  grayish  pulp  formed  from  the  food  in 
the  stomach. 

Cil'ia-kt.  [L.ct'iia,  eyelashes.]  Belonging 
to  the  eyelids. 

Clav'i-cle.  [L.  cZa?us,a  key.]  The  collar- 
bone; so  called  from  its  resemblance  in 
shape  to  an  ancient  key. 

Clo-a'ca.  [L.nsink.]  The  common  cavity 
into  which  open  the  intestinal  canal 
and  the  ducts  of  other  organs  in  some  of 
the  inferior  animals. 

Coc'cYX.  [Gr.]  An  assemblage  of  bones 
joined  to  the  sacrum. 

Coch'le-a.    [Gr.  Koxkto,  kochlo,  to  twist; 


GLOSSARY. 


187 


or  L.  cochlea,  a  screw.]    A  cavity  of  the 

ear  resembling  in  form  a  snail-shell. 
Co'lox.     [Gr.  KOiXov,  kolon,  I   arrest.]     A 

portion  of  the  large  intestine. 
Co-lum'na,  -X.    [L.]    A  column  or  pillar. 
Com'mis-sure.     [U    committo,    I   join    to- 
gether.]   A  point  of  union  between  two 

parts. 
CoN-JCNC-Ti'VA.      [L.    con,   together,    and 

jungn,  to  join.]      The  membrane   that 

covers  the  anterior  part  of  the  globe  of 

the  eye. 
Cor-a'coid.    [Gr.  Kopaf,  korax,  a  crow,  and 

ei£o?,  etdos,  form.]     A   process  of   the 

scapula  shaped  like  the  beak  of  a  crow. 
Oo'ri-um.    [Gr.  xopi-ov,  efiorion,  skin.]   The 

true  skin. 
Corn'e-a.    [L.  cornu,  a  horn.]    The  trans- 
parent membrane  in  the  fore  part  of  the 

eye. 
Cor'pus    Cal'lo-stjm.    [L.  corpus,  a  body, 

and  callus,  hard.]    The  great  band  of 

nervous    matter  which    unites  the  two 

hemispheres  of  the  brain. 
Cos'ta.    f  L.  casta,  a  coast  or  side.]    A  rib. 
Cri'coid.    [Gr.  KpiKOi,  Jcrikos,  a  ring,  and 

6i5o5,  etdos,  form.]    A  name  given  to  a 

cartilage  of  the  larynx  from  its  form. 
Crus-ta'ce-a.  [L.]  One  of  the  classes  of  the 

annulosa,  includiug  lobsters,  crabs,  etc. 
Crys'tal-line.    [L.  o'ystallinus,  consisting 

of  crystal.]     Cryslalline  lens,  one  of  the 

humors  of  the  eye. 
Cu'boid.    [Gr.  jcujSos,  kubos,  a  cube,  and 

cifio?,  etdos,  form.]    Having  nearly  the 

form  of  a  cube. 
Cu-ne'i-form.    [L.  cuneus,  a  wedge.]    The 

name  of  bones  in  the  wrist  and  foot. 
Ccs'piD.    f  L.  cuspis,  a  point.]    Having  one 

point. 
Cd-ta'ne-ous.    [L.  culis,  skin.]    Belonging 

to  the  skin. 
Cc'ti-cle.     [L.  cutis,  skin.]    The  external 

layer  of  the  skin. 
Cu'tis  Ve'ra.    [L.  cutis,  skin,  and  vera, 

true.]    The  internal  layer  of  the  ekin; 

the  tru3  skin. 

De'cus-sa'tion.  [L.  decutio,  I  divide.]  A 
union  in  the  shape  of  an  X  or  cross. 

Dil'toid.  [Gr.  SeXra,  delta,  the  Greek  let- 
ter A,  and  eifio;,  etdos,  form.]  The  name 
of  a  muscle  that  resembles  in  form  the 
Greek  letter  A. 


Den'tal,    [L.  dens,  tooth.]    Pertaining  tc 

the  teeth. 

De-press'or.  [L,]  The  name  of  a  muscle 
that  draws  down  the  part  to  which  it  is 
attached. 

Derm'is.  [Gr.  Sep/j.a,  skin.]  The  natural 
covering  of  animal  bodies. 

De-scend'ens.  [L.  de  and  scando,  to  climb.] 
Descending,  falling. 

Di'a-phragm.  [Gr.  6ia<f>paytia,  diaphragma, 
a  partition.]  A  muscle  separating  the 
chest  from  the  abdomen ;  the  midriff. 

Di-ges'tion.  [L.  digestio.]  The  process  of 
dissolving  food  in  the  stomach  and  pre- 
paring it  for  circulation  and  nourish- 
ment. 

Dor'sal.  [L.  dorsum,  the  back.]  Pertain- 
ing to  the  back. 

Du-o-de'num.  [L.  duodenus,  of  twelve  fin- 
gers' breadth.]  The  first  portion  of  the 
small  intestine. 

Du'ra  Ma'ter.  [L.  durus,  hard,  and  mater, 
mother.]  The  outermost  membrane  of 
the  brain. 

Dts-pep'si-a.  [Gr.  6us,  dus,  bad,  and  ttcti-tco, 
pepto,  to  digest.]  Indigestion  or  diffi- 
culty of  digestion. 

En-am'el.  [Fr.]  The  smooth,  hard  sub- 
stance which  covers  the  crown  or  visible 
part  of  a  tooth. 

Ep-i-derm'is.  [Gr.  em,  epi,  upon,  and 
Sepixa,  derma,  the  skin.]  The  superficial 
layer  of  the  skin. 

Ep-i-glot'tis.  [Gr.  em,  epi,  upon,  and 
yXitiTTa,  glofta,  the  tongue.]  One  of  the 
cartilages  of  the  glottis;  during  the  act 
of  swallowing  it  prevents  the  food  en- 
tering the  larynx. 

Ep-i-the'li-um.  [Gr.  eiti,  epi,  upon,  and 
fljjAij,  thele,  a  nipple.]  A  layer  of  soft 
cells  covering  the  nurfaco  of  the  lining 
membranes  and  part  of  the  skin. 

Eth'moid.  [Gr.  ij^ju-os,  ethmos,  a  sieve, 
and  eiSos,  etdos,  a  form.]  A  bone  of  the 
skull. 

Eu-sta'ohi-an  Tube.  A  channel  from  the 
fauces  to  the  middle  ear;  named  from 
Eustachi,  who  first  described  it. 

Ex'cre-ment.  [L.  excemo,  to  separate.] 
Matter  excreted  and  ejef  ted;  alvine  dis- 
charges. 

Ex'cre-to-rt,  a  little  duct  or  vessel,  des- 
tined to  receive  secreted  Quids  and  to 


188 


GLOSSARY. 


excrete  or  discharge  them;  also  a  se- 
cretory vessel. 

Ex-ha'lant.  [L.  exhalo,  to  send  forth 
vapor.]  Having  the  quality  of  exhaling 
or  evaporating. 

Ex-ten'sor.  [L.]  a  name  applied  to  a 
muscle  that  serves  to  extend  any  part 
of  the  body ;  opposed  to  Flexor. 

Fa'cial.  [L.  fades,  face.]  Pertaining  to 
the  face. 

Palx.  [L.  falx,  a  scythe.]  A  process  of 
the  dura  mater  shaped  like  a  scythe. 

Fas'ci-a.  [L./acia,  a  band.]  A  tendinous 
expansion  or  aponeurosis. 

Fas-cic'u-lus, -LI.  [L. /asm,  a  bundle.]  A 
little  bundle. 

Faux,  -ces.    [L.]    The  top  of  the  throat. 

Fem'o-ual.    Pertaining  to  the  femur. 

Fe'mur.     [L.]    The  thigh-bone. 

Fe-nes'tra,  -um.  [L.  fenestra,  a  window.] 
A  term  applied  to  some  openings  into 
the  internal  ear. 

Fibre,         ■»      [L.fbraJ]    An  organic  fila- 

FiB-RiL'LiE.  J  ment  or  thread  which  en- 

ters into  the  composition  of  every  an- 
imal and  vegetable  texture. 

Fi'brin.  a  peculiar  organic  substance 
found  in  animals  and  vegetables;  it  is  a 
solid  substance,  tough,  elastic,  and  com- 
posed of  thready  fibres. 

Fi'bro-Car'ti-lage.  An  organic  tissue,  par- 
taking of  the  nature  of  fibrous  tissue  and 
that  of  cartilage. 

Fib'o-la.  [L.  a  clasp.]  The  outer  and 
lesser  bone  of  the  leg. 

Fil'a-ment.  [L.Jilamenla,  threads.]  A  fine 
thread,  of  which  flesh,  nerves,  skin,  etc. 
are  composed. 

Flex'ion.  [L.  flectioj]  The  act  of  bend- 
ing. 

Fol'li-cle.  [L.  folliculus,  a  small  bag. 
A  little  bag  or  sac  formed  of  an  animal 
membrane ;  the  orifice  is  generally  mi- 
nute. 

Fore'arm.  The  part  of  the  upper  extrem- 
ity between  the  elbow  and  hand. 

Func'tion.  [L.  fungor,  to  perform.]  The 
action  of  an  organ  or  system  of  organs. 

Fcr'cd-la.  [L.  furca,  a  fork.]  The  V- 
shaped  bone,  or  wish-bone  of  birds, 
formed  by  united  clavicles. 

Uan'ou-on, -A.    [Gr.  yayyA.ioi',  ganglion,  a 


knot.]     An  enlargement  in  the  coarM 
of  a  nerve. 

Gas'tric.  [Gr.  yaa-rrip,  gaster,  the  stomach. 
Belonging  to  the  stomach. 

Gas-troc-ne'mi-us.  [Gr.  yaarrip,  gaster,  the 
stomach,  and  icvr)ixri,  kneme,  the  leg.] 
The  name  of  large  muscles  of  the  leg 
which  serve  to  draw  the  heel  upward. 

Gel'a-tin.  [F.  gelo,  to  conceal.]  A  con- 
crete animal  substance,  transparent  and 
soluble  in  water. 

Gland.  An  organ  consisting  of  tubes  an(? 
follicles,  with  blood-vessels  interwoven 
from  which  the  gland  elaborates  its  8& 
cretion. 

Glo'bule.  [L.]  a  small  particle  of  matter 
of  a  spheroidal  or  round  form.  The  red 
particles  which  swim  in  the  watery  part 
of  the  blood. 

Glos'sa.  [Gr.]  The  tongue.  Names  com- 
pounded with  this  word  are  applied  to 
muscles  of  the  tongue. 

Glot'tis.  [Gr.]  The  narrow  opening  at 
the  upper  part  of  the  larynx. 

Glu'te-us,  -i.  [Gr.]  A  name  given  to 
muscles  of  the  hip. 

Gus-ta'to-et.  [L.  pwsto,  to  taste.]  A  name 
given  to  the  nerve  of  taste. 

Heart.  [Sax.]  The  muscular  organ  which 
is  the  primary  organ  of  the  blood's  mo- 
tion in  an  animal  bod}'. 

Hem'ob-rhage.  [Gr.  ai/xa,  haima,  blood, 
and  priyvvio,  regnuo,  to  burst.]  A  dis- 
charge of  blood  from  an  artery  or 
vein. 

Herb-iv'o-rous.  [L.  herba  and  vorc]  Feed- 
ing on  herbs  or  vegetables. 

He-pat'ic.    [Gr.  rinap,  hepar.]    The  liver. 

IId'mer-U8.    [L.]    The  bone  of  the  arm. 

Hy'dka.  [Gr.  vSpa,  hudra,  a  water-ser- 
pent.]   The  fresh-water  polypes. 

Ht'dro-gen.  [Gr.  vSotp,  hydor,  water,  and 
yevvaoi,  gennao,  to  generate.]  A  gas 
which  constitutes  one  of  the  elements 
of  water. 

Ht'oi-ene.  [Gr.  uyieiroi',  hitgietnon,  health.] 
The  part  of  medicine  which  treats  of  the 
preservation  of  health. 

Hy'oid.  [Gr.  V  and  eiSoi,  etdos,  shape.] 
A  bone  of  the  tongue  resembling  the 
Greek  letter  Upsilon  in  shape. 

Hy'po-OLOs'sAU  Under  the  tongue.  The 
name  of  a  nerve  of  the  tongue. 


GLOSSARY. 


189 


b/E-mt.  [Gr.  eiXw,  eilo,  to  wind.]  A  por- 
tion of  tile  small  intestines. 

In-ci'sor.  [L.  incido,  to  cut.]  A  front 
tootli  tiiat  cuts  or  divides. 

In'dex.  [L.  indico,  to  show.]  Tlie  forefin- 
ger; tlie  pointing  finger. 

In-fu-so'ri-a.  [L.J  A  class  of  Protozoa; 
60  called  from  tiieir  frequent  occurrence 
in  organic  infusions. 

In-qlu'ties.  [L.]  The  crop.  The  fiist 
stomach  of  birds. 

In-nom-i-n\'ta,  -tum.  [L.  in,  not,  and 
namen,  name.]  Parts  which  have  no 
proper  name. 

In-sec-tiv'o-ra.  [L,  insectum,  an  insect, 
voro,  I  devour.]    Living  upon  insects. 

In-ter-cost'al.  [L.  inter,  between,  and 
costa,  a  rib.]    Between  the  ribs. 

In-ter-max'il-la-rt.  [L.  inter,  between, 
maxilla,  the  jaw-bone,]  Being  between 
the  cheek-bones. 

In-ter-vert'e-bral.  [L.]  Between  the  ver- 
tebra. 

In-tes'tine8.  [L.  intvis,  withinJ]  The  canal 
that  extends  from  the  right  orifice  of  the 
stomach  to  the  anus;  about  tliirty  feet 
long. 

I'ris.  [L.,  the  rainbow.]  The  colored  circle 
that  surrounds  the  pupil  of  the  eye. 

I'vo-RT.  A  hard,  solid,  fine-grained  sub- 
stance of  a  fine  white  color ;  the  tusk 
of  an  elephant. 

Je-ju'ntim.  [L.,  empty.]  A  portion  of  the 
small  intestine. 

Ju'gu-lar.  [L.  jugulum,  the  neck.]  Re- 
lating to  the  throat ;  the  great  veins  of 
the  neck. 

La'bi-i.    [L.]    The  lips. 

Lab'y-rinth.  [Gr.]  The  internal  ear;  so 
named  from  its  many  windings. 

FjAcn'Ry-MAL.  [L.  lachryma,  a  tear.]  Per- 
taining to  tears. 

Lac'te-au  [L.  lac,  milk.]  A  small  tube 
of  animal  bodies  for  conveying  chyle 
from  the  intestine  to  the  thoracic  duct. 

Lar-tnx.  [Gr.  Aapuyf,  la.runx.^  The  up- 
,     per  part  of  the  windpipe. 

La-ti8^8I-mu8,  -mi.  [L.,  superlative  of  latus, 
liroad.]  A  term  applied  to  some  mus- 
cles. 

Lf,-va'tor.  [L.  Uvo,  to  raise.]  A  name  ap- 
plied to  a  muscle  that  raises  some  part. 


Lig'a-ment,  [L.  ligo,  to  bind.]  A  strong, 
compact  substance  serving  tc  bind  one 
bone  to  another. 

Li'ver.  The  largest  gland  in  the  system. 
It  is  situated  below  the  diaphragm,  and 
secretes  the  bile. 

Lobe.  A  round  projecting  part  of  an  organ, 

Lob'ule.  a  division  of  a  glandular  organ 
communicating  with  a  single  duct. 

Ltjm'bar.  [L.  lumbtis,  the  loins.]  Pertain- 
ing to  the  loins. 

Lymph.  [L.  lympha,  water.]  A  colorless 
fluid  in  animal  bodies,  and  contained  in 
vessels  called  lymphatics. 

Ltm-phat'ic.  a  vessel  of  animal  bodies 
that  contains  or  conveys  lymph. 

Ma'job.  [L.,  greater.]  Greater  in  extent 
or  quantity. 

Mam'mals,  -ia.  [L.]  Include  man  and  all 
the  ordinary  quadrupeds. 

Mar'row.  [Sax.]  A  soft,  oleaginous  sub- 
stance contained  in  the  cavities  of  bones 

Mas-se'teb.  [Gr.  /utao-craojuai,  maxsaomai, 
to  chew.]  The  name  of  a  muscle  of  the 
face. 

Mas'ti-cate,  Mas-ti-ca'tion.  [L.  mastico.'\ 
To  chew;  the  act  of  chewing. 

Mas'toid.  [Gr.  /otao-ros,  mastos,  breast,  and 
et6os,  etdos,  form.]  The  name  of  a  pro- 
cess of  the  temporal  bone  behind  the  ear. 

Max-il'la.     [L.]    The  jaw-bone. 

Me-a'tus.  [L.  meo,  to  go.]  A  passage  oi 
channel. 

Me-di-as-ti'num.  a  membrane  that  sepa- 
rates the  chest  into  two  parts. 

Me'di-om,  -a.  [L.]  The  space  or  substance 
through  which  a  body  passes  to  any 
point. 

Med'ul-la-rt.  [L.  medulla,  marrow.]  Per 
taining  to  marrow. 

Me-dul'la  Ob-lon-ga'ta.  Commencement 
of  the  spinal  cord. 

Me-dol'la  Spi-na'lis.    The  spinal  cord. 

Mem'bra-na.  a  membrane;  a  thin,  while 
flexible  skin  formed  by  fibres  interwoven 
like  network. 

Mes'en-ter-t.  [Gr.  /ueo-o?,  mesos,  in  th» 
midst,  and  evrepov,  enteron,  the  intts- 
tine.]  The  membrane  by  which  the 
intestines  are  attached  to  the  spinal 
column. 

Me-ta-car'pus.  [Gr.  fiera,  meia,  after  or 
beyond,  and  Kapiro?.  karpos,  wrist.]     The 


190 


GLOSSARY. 


part  of  the  hand  between  the  wrist  and 
fingers. 

Me-ta-tar'sus.  [Gr.  jtAera,  mela,  after  or 
beyond,  and  Tap<ros,  tarsos,  the  tareus.] 
The  instep. 

Mid'riff.  [Sax.  mid  and  hrife,  the  belly.] 
See  Diaphragm. 

Mi'nor.  [L.]  Less,  smaller.  A  term  ap- 
plied to  several  muscles. 

Mi'teal.  [L.  mitra,  a  mitre.]  The  name 
of  the  valves  on  the  h^ft  side  of  the  heart. 

JIo'lar.  [L.  mo?a,  a  mill.]  The  name  of 
some  of  the  large  teeth. 

MoL  Lus'CA.  [L.  mollis,  soft.]  One  of  the 
sub-kingdoms,  comprising  species  whose 
bodies  are  soft  and  inarticulate.  The 
digestive  and  other  organs  are  enclosed 
by  a  fleshy  sac. 

Mo'tor,  -ess.  [L.  moveo,  to  move.]  Ex- 
citing motion.  A  term  applied  to  certain 
nerves. 

Mo-to'ry.    [L.]    Giving  motion. 

Mu'cous.     Pertaining  to  mucus. 

Mu'ous.  A  viscid  fluid  secreted  by  the 
mucous  membrane. 

Mus'cLE.  A  bundle  of  fibres  enclosed  in  a 
sheath.     The  lean  meat  of  animals. 

VIus'cu-LAR.     Pertaining  to  a  muscle. 

j1y-ol'o-gy.  [Gr.  /mv?,  7mts,  a  muscle,  and 
Aoyos,  logos,  a  discourse.]  A  description 
of  the  muscles. 

Va'sal.    Relating  to  the  nose. 

Nerve.  [L.  neures,  a  string.]  White  cords 
arising  from  the  brain  or  spinal  cord.  An 
organ  of  sensation  and  motion  in  ani- 
mals. 

Nkrv'ous  Cen'tre.  a  collection  of  gray 
nervous  matter  wliich  receives  impres- 
sions and  originates  the  nervous  im- 
pulses. 

Neu-RI-lem'ma.  [Gr.  vevpov,  neuron,  a 
nerve,  and  \efifia,  lemma,  a  sheath.] 
The  sheath  or  covering  of  a  nerve. 

Nku-rol'o-gt.  [Gr.  vevpov,  neuron,  a  nerve, 
and  \o'yos,  logos,  a  discourse.]  A  descrip- 
tion of  the  nerves  of  the  body. 

Ni'tro-gen.  That  element  of  the  air  which 
is  called  azote. 

Nor'mal.  [L.nwma,  arule.]  Conforming 
to  the  ordinai-y  standard. 

No'to-chord.  [Gr.  voro?,  notos,  the  back, 
XopSrja,  cJiorde,  a  string.]  A  cellular  rod 
which  is  developed  in  the  embryo  ver- 


tebrates immediately  beneath  the  spinal 
cord,  and  which  is  usually  replaced  in 
the  adult  by  the  spinal  column. 

Nu-CLE-o'tus.  [L.]  The  minute  solid  par- 
ticle found  in  the  interior  of  the  nncleua 
of  some  cells. 

Nu'cLE-us.  [L.  mix,  a  nut.]  The  central 
part  of  any  body,  or  that  about  which 
matter  is  collected. 

Nu-tri'tion.  The  art  or  process  of  pro- 
moting the  growth  or  repairing  the 
waste  of  the  system. 

CE-soph'a-gus.  [Gr.  oiw,  oio,  to  carry,  and 
<})ayta,  phago,  to  eat.]  The  name  of  the 
passage  through  wliich  the  food  passes 
from  the  mouth  to  the  stomach. 

Ol-fact'ory.  [L.  oleo,  to  smell,  und/acio, 
to  make.]    Pertaining  to  smelling. 

0-ma'sum.  [L.]  The  third  stomach  of 
Ruminants. 

0-men'tum.  [L.J  Tlie  caul.  A  fold  of  the 
peritoneum. 

Om-niv'o-kous.  [L.  omnia,  everything, 
voro,  I  devour.]  Feeding  indiscriminate- 
ly upon  all  kinds  of  food. 

Op'tic.  [Gr.  07rT0|u.at,  optomai,  to  see.] 
Relating  to  the  eye. 

Or-bic'u-lar.    [I/,  orfcis,  a  circle.]    Circular, 

Or'gan.  a  part  of  the  system  destined  to 
exercise  some  particular  function. 

Os.  [L.]  a  bone;  the  mouth  of  any- 
thing. 

Os'sE-ous.     Pertaining  to  bones. 

Os'si-FY.  [L.  ossa,  bones,  and  /ado,  to 
make.]     To  convert  into  bone. 

Os-te-ol'o-gy.  [Gr.  ocrreoi',  osteon,  a  bone, 
and  koyo^,  logos,  a  discourse.]  Tlie  part 
of  anatomy  which  treats  of  bones. 

0-vip'a-rou8.  [L.  ovttm,  an  egg,  pario,  I 
bring  forth.]  Producing  young  from 
eggs. 

Ox'y-gen.  a  permanently  elastic  fluid, 
invisible  and  inodorous.  One  of  tTio 
components  of  atmospheiic  air. 

Pal'ate.    [L.]    The  roof  of  the  mouth. 

Pan'cre-as.  [Gr.  nav,pan,  all,  and  icpeas, 
kreas,  flesh.]  A  long  gland  situated  neat, 
the  stomach  (in  domestic  animals  called 
the  "sweet-bread"). 

Pa-pil'la,  -X.  [L.]  Small  conical  promi- 
nences. They  constitute  the  roughnf-ss 
of  the  upper  surface  of  the  tongue. 


GLOSSARY. 


191 


Pa-ri'e-tal.  [L.  paries,  a  wall.]  A  bone 
of  the  skull. 

Pa-rot'id.  [Gr.  napa,  para,  near,  and 
oDTos,  otos,  the  gen.  of  ov?,  oua,  ear,  the 
ear.]  The  name  of  the  largest  salivary 
gland, 

Pa-tell'a,  -m.    [L.]    The  knee-pan. 

Pa-thet'i-cus,  -CI.  [Or.  jrados,  pathos,  pas- 
sion.] The  name  of  the  fourth  pair  of 
nerves. 

Pec'to-ral.    [L,]    Pertaining  to  the  chest. 

Pe-dun'ci.e.  [L,  pes,  the  foot.]  A  name 
applied  to  parts  of  the  brain  from  the 
resemblance  to  a  flower-stalk. 

Pel'vis.  [L.]  The  basin  formed  by  the 
large  bones  at  the  lower  part  of  the  ab- 
domen. 

Pen'ni-form.  [L.  penna,  a  feather.]  Hav- 
ing the  form  of  a  feather  or  quill. 

Per-i-cae'di-um.  [Gr.  irepi,  peri,  around, 
and  KapSia,  kardia,  the  heart.]  A  mem- 
brane that  encloses  the  heart. 

Per-i-cra'ni-um.  [Gr.  irept,  peri,  around, 
and  Kpaviov,  kraninn,  the  cranium.]  A 
membrane  that  invests  the  skull. 

Per-i-os'te-um.  [Gr.  irepi,  -peri,  around,  and 
o<TTeov,  osteon,  a  bone.]  A  membrane  that 
immediately  invests  the  bones  of  ani- 
mals. 

Per-i-stal'tic.  [Gr.  irepicrTeWoi,  peristello, 
to  involve.]  A  movement  like  the  crawl- 
ing of  a  worm. 

Per'ma-nent.    Durable;  lasting. 

Per-spi-ra'tion.  [L.  per,  through,  and 
spii'o,  to  breathe.]  The  excretion  from 
the  skin.  • 

Phal'anx,  ges.  [Gr.  <f)a\ay^,  phalanx,  an 
armj'.]  Three  rows  of  small  bones  form- 
ing the  fingers  or  toes. 

Phar'ynx.  [Gr.  (]>apvyS,  pharunx.']  The 
upper  part  of  the  oesophagus. 

Phy8-i-ol'o-gt.  [Gr.  </)vo-ts,  phusis,  nature, 
and  Aoyos,  logos,  a  discourse.  The  sci- 
ence of  the  functions  of  the  organs  of 
animals  and  plants. 

Pi'a  Ma'ter.  [L.  good  mother.]  The 
name  of  one  of  the  membranes  of  the 
brain. 

Pla-tys'ma,  [Gr.  irXarvi,  platus,  broad.] 
A  muscle  of  the  neck. 

Pleu'ra,  -je.  [Gr,  irXev pa, pleura,  the  side.] 
A  thin  membrane  that  covers  the  inside 
of  the  thorax  and  also  forms  the  exterior 
coat  of  the  lungs. 


Plex'us.  [L.  pleclo,  to  weave  together.] 
Any  union  of  nerves,  vessels  or  fibres  in 
the  form  of  network. 

Pneu-mo-gas'tric.    [Gr.  nvevfimv,  pneumon, 
the  lungs,  and  -yasTTjp,  gasler,  the  stom 
ach.]     Belonging   to   both  the  stomach 
and  lungs. 

Pneu-mo-nol'o-gt.    [Gr.  nvevixtov,  jmewrnov, 
the  lungs,  and  \oyo<;,  logos,  a  discourse 
A  description  of  the  lungs. 

Pol'tpe.  [Gr.  TToAii?,  polus,  many,  tiovs, 
pous,  foot.]  An  aquatic  animal  of  the 
radiate  type. 

Pons.  [L.]  a  bridge.  Pirns  varolii,  a 
transverse  band  of  nervous  fibres  passing 
in  a  curved  form  from  one  side  of  the 
cerebellum  to  the  other,  spanning  the 
medulla  oblongata, 

Poe'ti-o  Du'ra.  [L.,  hard  portion.]  The 
facial  nerve;  seventh  pair. 

Por'ti-o  Mol'lis.  [L.,  soft  portion,]  The 
auditory  nerve;  seventh  pair. 

Pos-te'ri-or.  [L,  post,  after.]  Opposed  to 
anterior. 

Pre-hen'sion,     [L,]    Grasping;  seizing, 

Pro-na'tor,  [L,  pronus,  turned  down- 
ward.] The  muscle  of  the  forearm  that 
moves  the  palm  of  the  hand  down- 
ward. 

Pro-to-zo'a.  [Gr.  Trpwros,  protns,  first,  and 
fwij,  zob'n,  animal.]  The  Infusoria  or 
lowest  class  of  animals. 

Pro-ven-tric'c-lus.  The  second  or  true 
stomach  in  birds. 

Pul-mon'ic,     ■»      [L.   pulmo,    the    lungs.] 

Pul'mo-na-ry.  )  Belonging  or  relating 

to  the  lungs. 

Pu'piL.  A  little  aperture  in  the  centre  of 
the  iris  through  which  the  rays  of  light 
pass  to  the  retina. 

Py-lo'rus.  [Gr.  TTuAojpo?,  puloros,  a  gate- 
keeper.] The  lower  orifice  of  the  stom- 
ach, with  which  the  duodenum  connects. 

Ra'di-u8.  The  name  of  one  of  the  bones 
of  the  forearm. 

Ra-di-a'ta.  [L.  radio,  to  shoot  rays.]  In- 
cludes those  animals  whose  parts  are 
arranged  round  an  axis  and  on  one  oi 
several  radii. 

Ra'di-ate.  Having  lines  or  fibres  that 
diverge  from  a  point. 

Rec'tum.  [L.]  Straight.  The  third  and 
last  portion  of  the  intestines. 


192 


GLOSSARY. 


Re'flex  Ac'tion.  An  involuntary  action 
of  the  nervous  system  by  which  an  ex- 
ternal impression,  conducted  by  a  sen- 
sory nerve,  is  reflected  or  converted  into 
a  motor  impulse. 

Reg'i-men.  [L.  rego,  to  govern.]  The 
systematic  regulation  of  the  food  and 
drink. 

Rep'tiles,  -ia.  [L.  repo,  to  creep.]  A  class 
of  animals  that  breathe  air  from  birth 
and  are  generally  covered  with  scales. 

Re-sid'u-um.  [L.]  Waste  matter.  The 
fieces. 

Res-pi-ea'tion.  [L.  re,  again,  and  spiro, 
to  breathe.]  The  act  of  breathing ;  in- 
spiring air  into  the  lungs  and  expelling 
it  again, 

Re-spi'ra-to-rt.  Pertaining  to  respiration ; 
serving  for  respiration. 

Re-tic'u-lcm.  [L.  refe,  a  net.]  The  second 
stomach  of  ruminants. 

Ret'i-na.  [L.  refe,  a  net.]  The  essential 
organ  of  sight.  One  of  the  coats  of  the 
eye,  formed  by  the  expansion  of  the 
optic  nerve. 

Ro-den'ti-a.  [L.  rodo,  to  gnaw.]  A  class 
of  mammals  having  two  large  cutting 
teeth  in  each  jaw,  separated  from  the 
molar  teeth  by  an  empty  space. 

Ro-tun'»um,  -a.    [L.]    Round ;  circular. 

Rxj'ga,  -m.    [L.]    a  wrinkle ;  a  fold. 

Ru'mi-nant.  [L.]  An  animal  that  chews 
the  cud. 

Ba'crum.  [L.,  sacred.]  The  bone  which 
forms  the  posterior  part  of  the  pelvis 
and  is  a  continuation  of  the  spinal 
column. 

Sa-li'va.  [L.]  The  fluid  which  is  se- 
creted bj'  glands  and  poured  into  the 
mouth.    It  is  a  solvent  of  the  food. 

Sal'iv-a-rt.    Pertaining  to  saliva. 

San-gcin'e-ocs.  [L.  sanguis,  the  blood.] 
Abounding  with  blood;  plethoric. 

Sar-to'ri-us.  [L.  sartor,  a  tailor.]  A  term 
applied  to  a  muscle  of  the  thigh. 

Sca-le'nus.  [Gr.  (tkoAtjvos,  skalenos,  un- 
equal.] A  term  applied  to  some  muscles 
of  the  neck. 

Bcaph'oid.  [Gr.  <TKa^yi,  skaphe,  a  little 
boat.]  The  name  applied  to  one  of  the 
wrist-bones. 

ScAP'u-LA.    [L.]    The  shoulder-blade. 

Sci-at'ic.    [Gr.]    Pertaining  to  the  loins. 


The  name  of  the  large  nerve  of  the  loini 

and  leg. 
Scle-rot'ic.    [Gr.  o-kXtjpo?,  skleros,  hard.] 

A  membrane  of  the  eye. 
Se-ba'ceous.    [L.  sebum,  tallow.]    Pertain- 
ing to  fat ;  unctuous  matter. 
Se-cre'tion.    The  act  of  producing  from 

the  blood  substances  different  from  tin 

blood  itself,  as  bile,  saliva;  the  mattei 

secreted,  as  mucus,  bile,  etc. 
Sk-cee'to-rt.     Performing    the    office  oi 

secretion. 
Sem-i-cie'cc-lar.     Having  the  form  of  n 

half  circle.    The  name  of  a  part  of  the 

ear. 
Sem-i-lu'nar  Valves.    [L.  semi,  half,  and 

luna,  the  moon.]    Name  of  the   three 

festooned  valves   of   the   heart   at  the 

entrance  of  the  great  arteries. 
Sep'tum,  -a.  [L.]  a  membrane  that  divides 

two  cavities  from  each  other. 
Se'rous.     Thin ;   watery.     Pertaining   to 

serum. 
Se'rum.    [L.]    The  thin,  transparent  part 

of  blood. 
Ser-ra'ted.    [L.  serra,  a  saw.]    Notched  on 

the  edge  like  a  saw.    Name  of  muscles. 
Sig'moid.    [Gr.]    Resembling  the  Greek  ?, 

Sigma. 
Si'nus.    [L.,  a  bay.]    A  cavity,  the  interior 

of  which  is  more   expanded  than  the 

entrance. 
Skel'e-ton.    [Gr.  vKeWui,  skello,  to  dry.] 

The  aggregate  of  the  hard  parts  of  the 

body ;  the  bones. 
Sphe'noid.    [Gr.  or^rjv,  sphen,  a  wedge,  and 

etSo?,  etdos,  likeness.]      A  bone  at  the 

base  of  the  skull. 
Sphinc'ter.     [Gr.  crc^iyyw,  spMngo,  to  re 

strict.]    A  muscle  that  contracts  or  shuts 

an  orifice. 
Spi'nal  Cord.  A  prolongation  of  the  brain. 
Spine.    A  thorn.    The  vertebral  column ; 

back-bone. 
Splanch-nol'o-gt.  [Gr.  trirXayxvov,  splanch- 

non,  the  bowels,  and  Ao-yo?,  logos,  a  dis- 
course,]   A  description  of  the  intTiial 

parts  of  the  body. 
Spleen.    A  very  vascular  organ   sit  ■,ate'I 

in   the   abdomen   and   attached  tc  the 

stomach;  the  milt. 
Sta'pes,    The  name  of  one  of  the  smal' 

bones  of  the  ear, 
Ster'num.    The  breast-bone. 


GLOSSARY. 


193 


Btxg'ma-ta.  The  apertures  in  the  bodies 
of  insecta  communicating  \(ith  the  air- 
vessels. 

Stom'ach.  The  principal  organ  of  the 
digestive  ipparatus. 

Stra'tum,  -a.  [L.  stemo,  to  spread.]  A 
bed ;  a  layer. 

Sub-cla'vi-an.  [L.  sub,  under,  and  clavis, 
a  key.]    Situated  under  the  clavicle. 

Sdb-co-ta'ne-ous.  [L.  sub,  under,  and  cutis, 
skin.]    Situated  under  the  skin. 

Sob-iin'gual.  [L.  sub,  under,  and  lingua, 
the  tongue.]    Situated  under  the  tongue. 

SUB-MAx'iL-LA-RT.  fL.  sub.  Under,  and 
maxilla,  the  jaw-bone.]  Located  under 
the  jaw. 

Sd-pi-na'tor.  [L.]  a  muscle  that  turns 
the  palm  of  the  hand  upward. 

Su'tuee.  [L.  suo,  to  sew.]  The  seam  or 
joint  that  unites  the  bones  of  the 
skull. 

Syn-o'^-a.  [Gr.  <rvv,  sun,  with,  and  uov, 
'-^m,  an  egg.]  The  fluid  secreted  into 
*He  cavities  or  joints  for  the  purpose  of 
iubricating  them. 

Stn-o'vi-al.    Pertaining  to  synovia. 

Sts'tem.  An  assemblage  of  organs  com- 
posed of  the  same  tissues  and  intended 
fox*  the  same  functions. 

St8-tem'ic.  Belonging  to  the  general  sys- 
tem. 

Tac'tile.  [L.  tango,  I  touch.]  That  may 
be  felt;  connected  with  the  sense  of 
touch. 

Tar'sxts.  [L.]  The  posterior  part  of  the 
foot.    The  instep. 

Tem'po-ral.  [L.  tempus,  time.]  Pertain- 
ing to  the  temples;  so  called  because 
the  hair  early  begins  to  turn  white  with 
age  in  that  portion  of  the  scalp. 

Ten'don.  [Gr.  retpoi,  teino,  to  stretch.]  A 
fibrous  cord  by  which  a  muscle  is  at- 
tached to  a  bone. 

Ten-to'ri-um.  [L.  tendo,  to  stretch.]  A 
process  of  the  dura  mater  which  lies  be- 
tween the  cerebrum  and  cerebellum. 

T  H  )'rax.  [Gr.J  That  part  of  the  skeleton 
that  composes  the  bones  of  the  chest; 
the  cavity  of  the  chest. 

Tuo-EAC'iC.     Relating  to  the  chest. 

Tut'roid.  [Gr.  9vpeo$,  thureos,  a  shield.] 
Resembling  a  shield.  A  cartilage  of  the 
larynx. 

17 


TiB'i-A.    [L.,  a  flute.]    The  large  bone  of 

the  leg. 
Tis'su  '.    A  web-like  structure  constitnt- 

ingw  le  elementary  structure  of  animals. 
Ton'sii      [L.]    a  glandular  body  in  the 

throat  or  fauces. 
Tra'chea,  -X.  [Gr.  rpa^v?,  trachus,  rough.] 

The  windpipe.    In  insects  the  air-tubes 

which  ramify  in  the  body. 
Trans-verse'.    Lying  in  a  cross  direction, 
Tri'ceps.    [L.  tres,  three,  and  caput,  head.] 

Three.    A  name  given  to  muscles  that 

have  three  attachments  at  one  extrem- 
ity. 
Tri-cxts'pid.     [1.   tres,  three,  and   cuspis, 

point.]     The  tiiangular  valves   in  the 

right  side  of  the  heart. 
TRix'u-RAT-iNa.    Grinding  to  a  powder. 
Troch'le-a.      [Gr.    rpoxoAia,    trochalia,  a 

pulley.]     A   pulley-like    cartilage  over 

which  the  tendon  of  a  muscle  of  the  eye 

passes. 
Trunk.    The  principal  part  of  the  body  to 

which  the  limbs  are  articulated. 
Tu'ber-cle.    [L.  tuber,  a  bunch.]    A  pimple, 

swelling  or  tumor  on  animal  bodies. 
To'bule.    [L.]    a  little  tube  or  pipe. 
Tur'bi-na-teb.      [L.    turbo,    a    whirling,* 

Three   rolled  or  convoluted   plates   oi 

bone  attached  to  the  outer  wall  of  eack 

nostril. 
Tym'pan-um.    [L.]    The  middle  ear. 

Ul'??a,    [It.]    A  bone  of  the  forearm. 

TJ-re'ter.  [Gr.  ovpe>.v,  ourein,  to  conduct 
water.]  The  excretory  duct  of  the  kid- 
neys. 

Valve.  Any  membrane,  or  doubling  of 
any  membrane,  which  prevents  fluids 
from  flowing  back  in  the  vessels  and 
canals  of  the  animal  body. 

Vas'ctt-lar.  [L.  vascvlum,  a  vessel.]  Per- 
taining to  vessels;  abounding  in  vessels. 

Veins.  Vessels  that  convey  blood  to  the 
heart. 

Ven'trau  [L.  venter,  the  stomach.]  Re^ 
lating  to  the  lower  or  inferior  surfafe 
of  the  body. 

Ven'tri-cle.  [L.  venter,  the  stomach.]  i 
small  cavity  of  the  animal  body. 

Verm-i-form'is.  [L.  vermis,  a  worm,  and 
forma,  form.]  Having  the  form  and 
shape  of  a  worm. 


194 


GLOSSARY. 


Vebt'e-bra,-^.  [L.  vertn,  to  turn.]  A  joint 
of  the  spinal  column. 

Vert'b-bkates.  [L.J  Animals  which  have 
an  internal  Bkeleton  supported  by  a  ver- 
tebral or  spinal  column. 

Ves'i-cle.  [L.  vesica,  a  bladder.]  A  little 
bladder. 

Ves'ti-bule.  [L.]  A  porch  of  a  house. 
A  cavity  belonging  to  the  ear. 

Vil'li.  [L.  viUhs,  hair.]  The  thread-like 
projections  from  the  inner  surface  of  the 
membrane  that  lines  the  small  intestines, 

fi'BUS.  [L.,  poison.]  Foul  matter  of  an 
alcer;  poison. 


Vi'TAt.    [L.  vita,  life.]    Pertaining  to  life. 
Vit'ee-0U8.    [L.  vitrum,  glass.]    Belonging 

to  glass.    A  humor  of  the  eye. 
Vo'mkr.    [L.,  a  ploughshare.]    One  of  the 

bones  of  the  nose. 

Zo-ol'o-qt.  [Gr.  ^o<av,  zoon,  an  animal, 
Aoyos,  logos,  a  discourse.]  That  branch 
of  Natural  History  that  treats  of  ani- 
mals. 

Zto-o-mat'i-cus.  [Gr.  (uyot,  zugos,  a  yoke.] 
A  terra  applied  to  some  muscles  of  the 
face  from  their  attachment. 


INDEX. 


Absorbents,  Anatomy  of,  59,  75. 

Physiology  of,  78. 

Hygiene  of,  80. 
Absorption,  75. 
Air,  43,  91,  lit. 
Air-Cells,  84,  87. 
Alveolar  Processes,  51. 
Amphibians,  Definition  of,  27. 
Anatomy,  Definition  of,  8. 
Angiologt,  Comparative,  124. 
Annulosa,  25,  33,  72, 100, 127, 150. 
Aorta,  116. 

Apparatus,  Definition  of,  8. 
Artery  Pulmonary,  85,  119. 
Artery,  116. 
Asphyxia,  from  Drowning,  180. 

from  Carbonic  Acid  Gas,  180, 
Assimilation,  57, 130. 
Auricle,  of  the  Heart,  115. 

Bathing,  112, 171. 

Beds,  Making  of,  172. 

Bile,  58. 

Birds,  Definition  of,  26. 

Blood,  Temperature  of,  89, 116. 

Blood-Vessels,  85. 

Bones,  Anatomy  of,  13, 

Physiology  of,  20. 

Hygiene  of,  22. 
Brain,  135. 
Bronchi,  84. 
Burns  and  Scalds,  178. 

Capillaries,  85,  119. 

Carbonic  Acid,  87,  91. 

Carpus,  17. 

Cartilage,  18. 

Cells,  Definition  of,  9. 

Cerebellum,  135, 139. 

Cerebro-Spinal  System,  134. 

Cerebrum,  135, 139. 

Chest,  Compression  of,  23,  96. 


Chilblains,  180. 
Chyle,  59. 
Chyme,  59. 
CmcuLATORY  Organs,  116. 

Physiology  of,  121. 

Hygiene  of,  122. 
Clavicle,  16. 
Clothing,  109,  124, 
Coccyx,  15. 
Cochlea,  164. 

Commissures  of  the  Brain,  134. 
Corium,  104, 108. 
Corns,  Treatment  of,  179. 
Crystalline  Lens,  157 
Cuticle,  103. 

Dermis,  104. 

Diaphragm,  85. 

Diet,  144. 

Digestive  Organs,  Anatomy  of,  61. 

Physiology  of,  57. 

Hygiene  of,  59. 
Drowned  Persons,  Treatment  of,  180. 

Ear,  162, 164,  166. 
Epidermis,  103, 107. 
Epiglottis,  82. 
Epithelial  Cells,  9,  57. 
Excretion,  131. 
Eye,  156, 159, 162. 

Protecting  Organs  of,  158. 

Face,  Bones  of,  14. 
Fascia,  37, 
Fasciculi,  36. 
Felon,  24. 
Femur,  15. 
Fibula,  15. 
Fibre,  36. 

Fishes,  Definition  of,  27. 
Food,  Quantity  of,  60. 
(  Quality  of,  61. 

195 


196 


INDEX. 


Food,  Manner  of  taking,  62. 

Conditions  when  received,  63. 
Frost-Bite,  Treatment  of,  179. 
Function,  8. 

FOBCULA,  30. 

Ganglions,  133. 
Gastric  Juice,  58. 
Glands,  Definition  of,  52. 

Lachrymal,  159. 

Lj-nphatic,  77. 

Mesenteric,  77. 

Oil,  105,  108. 

Perspiratory,  106. 

Salivary,  53.  4. 

Secreting,  131. 

Hair-Follicles,  105, 109. 
Heart,  115. 

Auricles  of,  116. 

Ventricles  of,  116. 
Heat,  Animal,  89,  132. 
Hemorrhage,  Means  of  Arrewling,  177. 
Humerus,  16. 
Hydrogen,  89. 
Hygiene,  Definition  of,  8. 

Insects,  127. 
Intestines.  54. 
Intestinal  Juice,  58. 
Invertebrates,  25,  49,  71, 126, 150. 
Iris,  157. 

Joints,  17,  21. 

Kidneys,  131. 

Labyrinth,  163. 
Lachrymal  Apparatus,  159. 
Lacteals,  77. 
Larynx,  82,  90. 
Ligament,  18. 
Light,  43, 114. 
Liver,  55. 
Lungs,  84. 
Lymph,  78. 
Lymphatics,  75, 108. 
Duct,  77. 

Mammals,  Definition  of,  26, 
Ml-.DICINE,  173. 
Medulla,  19. 

Oblongata,  134. 
Membrane,  Basement,  9. 

Of  the  Brain,  135. 


Membrane,  Mucous,  9. 

Secreting,  131. 

Serous,  9. 

Synovial,  9, 16. 
Metacarpus,  17. 
Metatarsus,  16. 

Mollusca,  25,  33,  72,  101, 127   151. 
MoTORY  Apparatus,  12. 
Mouth,  Structure  of,  51. ' 
Mucus,  9,  58. 
Muscles,  Anatomy  of,  36. 

Physiology  of,  39. 

Hygiene  of,  42. 

Of  eye,  158. 

Respiratory,  85. 

Intercostal,  86. 
Myology,  Comparative,  48. 

Nails,  106, 109. 
Nerve  Centres,  139. 
Nerves,  133, 136. 

Cranial,  136. 

Cutaneous,  105. 

Spinal,  137. 

Sympathetic,  138,  140. 
Nervous  System,  Anatomy  of,  133, 

Physiology  of,  139. 

Hj'giene  of,  142. 
Neurilema,  136. 
Neurology,  Comparative,  148. 
Nitrogen,  87. 
Nurse,  Duty  of,  171. 
Nutritive  Apparatus.  -M. 

(Esophagus,  53. 
Oil-Glands,  105. 
Organ,  Definition  of,  8. 
Osteology,  Comparative  24 
Oxygen,  87. 

Papilla.  104  I08. 
Palate,  51. 
Pancreas,  55. 
Pancreatic  Juice,  58. 
Patella,  15. 
Pelvis,  14. 
Pericardium,  115. 
Pericranium,  19. 
Periosteum,  19. 
Perspiration,  Uses  of,  100, 
Phalanges,  16, 17. 
Pharynx,  53. 

Physiology,  Definition  of,  8. 
Pleura,  84. 


INDEX. 


197 


Plexus.  139. 

Pneumonologt,  Comparative,  97. 
Poisons  and  their  Antidotes,  180. 
Protozoa,  25,  34,  74, 101, 128. 

Radiata,  25,  34,  74,  128,  151. 
Radius,  16. 

Reptiles,  Definition  of,  27 
Respiration,  Artificial,  180. 
Respiratory  Organs,  Anatonij'  of,  82. 

Pbysijlogy  of,  86. 

llygieno  of,  91. 
Retina,  157. 
Ribs,  1 1. 

Sacrum,  15. 
Saliva,  58. 
Scapula,  16. 
Secretion,  131. 
Sick-Room,  93, 172. 
Sinuses,  Venous,  127. 
Skeleton,  18. 
Skin,  Anatomy  of,  103. 

Physiology  of,  107. 

Hygiene  of,  109. 
Skull,  13. 
Sleep,  146. 
Sleeping-Room,  93. 
Sound,  165. 

Smell,  Sense  of,  154, 155. 
Spinal  Cord,  134, 140. 

"      Column,  14. 
Splanchnology,  Comparative,  '^b. 
Spleen,  55. 
Sternum,  14. 
Stigmata,  100. 
Stomach,  64. 
Sweat  Glands,  109. 
Bjtnovia,  9. 

1?« 


Tarsus,  16. 

Taste,  Sense  of,  167. 

Teeth, 51. 

Tendons,  37,  40. 

Thoracic  Duct,  75. 

Tibia,  15. 

Tissues,  Adipose,  19. 

Cellular,  9. 

Muscular,  9. 

Nervous,  9. 
Tongue,  167. 
Touch,  Sense  of,  168. 
Trachea,  83. 
Trunk,  14. 
Tympanum,  162. 

Ulna,  16. 
Ureter,  131. 

Valves  of  the  Heart,  1 16. 
Veins,  119. 

Absorbent,  78. 

Hepatic,  121. 

Portal,  78, 121. 

Pulmonary,  85, 1^. 
Ventilation,  92, 173. 
Ventricles  of  the  Heart,  1 1<5. 

Of  the  larynx,  83. 
Vertebra,  14. 
Vertebrates,  25, 26.  48,  66,97, 124,  143  154j 

167, 169. 
Vestibule,  164. 
Villi,  56,  59. 
Vocal  Cords,  83,  90. 
"     Organs,  82,  91,  96. 

Watcher,  Duty  of,  175. 
Wonder-Nets,  125. 
WOUMDS,  Treatment  of,  17fl. 


KEY   TO   OUTTEE'S 

NEW  OUTLINE  ZOOLOGICAL  CHARTS. 


OR 


HUMAN  AND  COMPARATIYE  ANATOIGAL  PLATES. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHEES. 

In  using  these  charts,  we  would  suggest  that  the  pupil  carefully  examine 
the  illustrating  cuts  interspersed  with  the  text  in  connection  with  the  lesson 
to  be  recited.  The  similarity  between  these  and  the  charts  will  enable  the 
pupil  to  recite,  and  the  teacher  to  conduct  his  recitation  from  the  latter. 

Let  a  pupil  show  the  situation  of  an  organ,  or  part,  on  an  anatomical  out- 
line chart,  and  also  give  its  structure,  while  other  members  of  the  class  note 
all  omissions  and  misstatements.  Another  pupil  may  give  the  use  of  that 
organ,  and,  if  necessary,  others  may  give  an  extended  explanation.  The 
third  may  explain  the  laws  on  which  the  health  of  the  part  depends,  while 
other  members  of  the  class  may  supply  what  has  been  omitted.  After  thu 
presenting  the  subject  in  the  form  of  topics,  questions  may  be  proposed  pro 
miscuously  from  each  paragraph,  and  where  examples  occur  in  the  text  let 
other  analogous  ones  be  given. 

If  the  physiology  and  hygiene  of  a  given  subject  have  not  been  studied, 
confine  the  recitation  to  those  parts  only  on  which  the  pupil  is  prepared. 
When  practicable,  the  three  departments  should  be  united ;  but  this  can  only 
be  done  when  the  chapter  on  the  hygiene  has  been  learned,  while  the  physi- 
ology can  be  united  with  the  anatomy  in  all  chapters  upon  physiology. 

CHAET  No.  1. 

OSSEOUS  SYSTEM— HUMAN.  AND  COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Bones  of  the  Human  Body. — 1,  The  frontal  bone.  2,  The  superior  max- 
illary (upper  jaw-bone).  3,  The  inferior  maxillary  (lower  jaw-bone).  4, 
The  cervical  vertebrae  (bones  of  the  neck).  5,  6,  The  lumbar  vertebrae  (bones 
of  the  loins).  7,  The  sacrum,  8,  The  temporal  bone.  9,  The  scapula 
(shoulder-blade).  10,  10,  10,  The  ribs.  11,  11,  The  innominata  (hip-bones). 
12,  The  humerus  (arm-bone).  13,  The  radius.  14,  The  ulna.  15,  The  car- 
pus (wrist-bones).  16,  16,  The  metacarpus  (bones  of  the  palm  of  the  hand). 
17,  17,  The  phalanges  (finger-bones).  18,  The  femur  (thigh-bone).  19,  The 
i 


KEY   TO   NEW   OUTLINE   ZOOLOGICAL   CHARTS.  II 

patella  (knee-pan).  20,  The  tibia.  21,  The  fibula.  22,  The  tarsus  (bones 
of  the  instep).  23,  23,  The  metatarsus  (bones  of  the  middle  of  the 
foot).  24,  24,  The  phalanges  (toe-bones).  25,  Ligaments  of  the  shoulder. 
26,  Ligaments  of  the  elbow.  27,  Ligaments  of  the  wrist.  28,  Ligaments 
of  the  hip-joint.  29,  Ligaments  of  the  knee.  30,  Interosseous  membrane. 
31,  Ligaments  of  the  ankle.  32,  The  clavicle  (collar-bone).  33,  The  sternum 
(breast-bone). 

B.  Bones  of  the  Cow. — 1,  The  frontal  bone.  2,  The  upper  jaw  (superior 
maxillary).  3,  The  lower  jaw  (inferior  maxillary).  4,  The  cervical  vertebrau 
(bones  of  the  neck).  5,  The  dorsal  vertebrae  (bones  of  the  back).  6,  7,  The 
lumbar  vertebrae.  8,  The  caudal  vertebrae.  9,  The  scapula.  10,  10, 
The  ribs.  11,  The  innominate  bones.  12,  The  humerus.  13,  14,  The  radius 
and  ulna.  15,  The  carpus.  16,  The  metacarpus.  17,  The  phalanges.  18, 
The  femur.  20,  The  tibia.  22,  The  tarsus.  23,  The  metatarsus.  24,  The 
phalanges. 

C.  Bones  of  the  Bird. — 1,  The  cranium.  2,  The  superior  mandible  (upper 
jaw).  3,  The  interior  mandible  (lower  jaw).  4,  The  cervical  vertebrae.  6-, 
The  dorsal  vertebrae.  8,  The  coccyx.  9,  The  scapula.  10,  The  ribs.  11, 
The  pelvis.  12,  The  humerus.  13,  14,  The  radius  and  ulna.  15,  The  car- 
pus. 16,  The  metacarpus.  17,  17,  Phalanges.  18,  The  femur.  20,  The 
tibia.  21,  The  fibula.  22,  23,  The  metatarsus.  24,  Phalanges.  32,  The 
coracoid  bone.     33,  The  clavicle  (furcula).     34,  The  sternum. 

D.  Bones  of  the  Tortoise. — 1,  The  head.  4,  The  cervical  vertebrae.  5,  5, 
6,  6,  The  dorsal  vertebrae  and  lateral  plates.  7,  The  iliac  bones.  8,  The 
caudal  vertebrae.  9,  The  scapula.  12,  The  humerus.  13,  14,  The  radius 
and  ulna.  15,  The  carpus.  16,  17,  Phalanges.  18,  The  femur.  20,  The 
tibia.  21,  The  fibula.  22,  The  tarsus.  23,  24,  Phalanges.  32,  The  clavicle. 
33,  The  coracoid  bone. 

E.  Bones  of  the  Fish. — 1,  The  bones  of  the  head.  2,  The  upper  jaw.  3, 
The  lower  jaw.  4,  5,  6,  The  dorsal  and  caudal  vertebrae.  8,  The  first  dorsal 
fin.  9,  The  second  dorsal  fin.  10,  One  of  the  ventral  fins.  12,  A  pectoral 
fin.     18,  A  ventral  fin. 

F.  Diagram  of  an  Annulose. — 1,  The  vascular  (blood-vessel)  system.  2, 
The  digestive  system.  3,  3,  The  ganglia  (nervous)  system.  4,  4,  A  series  of 
rings  of  hardened  skin  which  forms  an  external  skeleton. 

Gr.  Diagram  of  a  Mollnsk. — 1,  The  digestive  canal.  2,  The  heart.  3,  4,  5, 
Ganglia  (knots  of  nervous  matter). 

H.  Diagram  of  a  Badiate. — (A  star-fish).     1,  Central  aperture. 

CHAET  No.  2. 

MUSCULAR  SYSTEM— HUMAN  AND   COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Muscles  of  Human  Body. — 1,  The  oceipito-frontalis.  2,  The  orbicularis 
palpebrarum.  3,  The  levator  labii  superioris.  4,  The  zygomaticus.  5,  The 
masseter.  6,  The  orbicularis  oris.  7,  The  temporal.  8,  Zygomatici,  9,  The 
depressor  labii  inferioris.  10,  The  deltoid.  11,  11,  The  pectoralis  major. 
13,   The   supinator  longus.      14,   Palmaris  longus.     15,   The  flexor  carpi 


m        KEY   TO   NEW   OUTLINE  ZOOLOGICAL   CHARTS. 

radialis.  16,  The  obliquus  externus.  17,  The  sartorius.  18,  The  adductor 
longus.  19,  The  rectus  femoris.  20,  The  vastus  externus.  21,  The  vastus 
internus.  22,  The  tendon  of  the  quadriceps  extensor.  23,  The  gastrocnemius. 
24,  The  extensor  longus  digitorium.  25,  The  tibialis  anticus.  26,  The  short 
extensor  muscles  of  the  toes.  27,  The  tendons  of  the  long  extensors.  28,  The 
serratus  magnus.  29,  29,  The  external  abdominal  rings.  30,  The  saphenous 
opening.  31,  31,  31,  31,  The  tendons  of  the  wrist  and  fingers.  32,  The 
sterno-hyoideus.  33,  The  sterno-cleido-mastoideus.  34,  The  biceps.  35, 
The  triceps  muscle. 

B.  Muscles  of  the  Coto. — 1,  The  occipito-frontalis.  2,  The  orbicularis  pal- 
pebrarum. 3,  The  masseter.  4,  The  levator  labii  inferioris.  5,  The  platysma. 
7,  The  trapezius.  10,  The  latissimus  dorsi.  11,  The  pectoralis.  16,  17,  The 
external  and  internal  oblique  muscle.  18,  The  opening  for  the  mammary 
artery  and  vein  (milk-veins).  19,  The  biceps  femoris.  20,  20,  20,  The  gluteii 
muscles.     33,  The  masto-humeralis. 

C.  Muscles  of  the  Bird.—l,  The  occipito-frontalis.  2,  The  orbicularis  pal- 
pebrarum. 5,  The  masseter.  7,  The  temporal.  10,  The  deltoid.  11,  The 
pectoralis.  13,  The  sacro-lumbalis.  14,  The  extensor  carpi  ulnaris.  19,  The 
vastus  externus.  20,  The  gluteii.  23,  The  flexor  longus  digitorium.  24, 
The  extensor  longus  digitorium.  33,  The  longus  colli.  34,  The  extensor 
plicae  alaris.     35,  The  teres  major. 

D.  Muscles  of  the  Tortoise. — 1,  The  digastricus.  10,  10,  Toe  deltoides. 
14,  The  palmaris.  18,  The  semi-membranosus.  23,  The  tibialis  anticus.  24. 
The  gastrocnemius.  28,  The  sub-coracoideus.  31,  32,  The  flexores  digito- 
rium.    34,  35,  The  triceps  brachii. 

E.  Muscles  of  the  Fish. — 1,  2,  3,  and  a,  b,  c,  represent  the  zigzag  arrange- 
ment of  the  muscles  of  the  fish  (myocomma). 

P.  Diagram  of  an  Insect. — 1,  The  head.  2,  The  first  segment  of  the  chest, 
with  the  first  pair  of  legs.  3,  The  second  segment,  with  the  second  pair  of 
legs  and  the  first  pair  of  wings.  4,  The  third  segment,  with  the  third  pair 
of  legs  and  second  pair  of  wings.     5,  The  abdomen  without  legs. 

CHAET  No.  3. 
NUTRITIVE  SYSTEM— HUMAN  AND   COMPARATIVE. 

A.  The  Internal  Organs  of  Man. — 1,  The  parotid  gland.  2,  The  submax- 
illary gland.  3,  The  sublingual  gland.  4,  The  oesophagus.  5,  The  larynx 
and  trachea.  6,  The  left  lung.  7,  The  right  lung.  8,  The  heart.  9,  The 
vena  cava  descendens.  10,  The  aorta.  11,  The  pulmonary  artery.  12,  The 
stomach.  13,  14,  The  left  and  right  lobe  of  the  liver.  16,  15,  15,  The  large 
intestine.  16,  16,  16, 16,  The  small  intestine.  17,  The  diaphragm.  18,  The 
gall-bladder. 

B.  Internal  Organs  of  a  Goat. — 1,  The  second  stomach  (reticulum).  2,  The 
third  stomach.  3,  The  fourth  stomach  (rennet).  4,  Fold  of  the  mesentery.  5, 
The  jejunum.  6,  The  ileum.  7,  The  cascum.  8,  The  colon.  9,  The  right 
kidney.  10,  The  rectum.  11,  12,  Lobes  of  the  liver  (turned  forward).  13, 
The  gall-cyst.     14,  Inferior  part  of  abdomen.     15,  The  omentum. 


KEY   TO   NEW   OUTLINE   ZOOLOGICAL   CHAETS.         IV 

C.  Organs  of  a  winged  Reptile. — 1,  The  ventricle  of  the  heart.  2,  3,  The 
auricles  of  the  heart.  4,  5,  6,  Blood-vessels.  7,  The  trachea.  9,  10,  11,  The 
liver  and  its  appendages.  12,  The  stomach.  13,  The  duodenum.  14,  15, 16, 
The  intestines.     17,  The  cloaca.     18,  The  caeca. 

D.  Diagram  of  the  Organs  of  a  Frog. — 1,  The  heart.  2,  2,  Arches  of  the 
aorta.  3,  3,  Pulmonary  artery.  4,  4,  The  pulmonary  veins.  6,  The  stomach. 
6,  The  digestive  canal. 

CHAET  No.  4. 
DIGESTIVE  SYSTEM— HUMAN  AND    COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Digestive  Organs  of  Man. — 1,  The  upper  jaw.  2,  The  lower  jaw.  ?>, 
The  tongue.  4,  The  hard  palate  (roof  of  the  mouth).  5,  The  parotid  gland. 
6,  The  sublingual  gland.  7,  The  larynx.  8,  9,  The  oesophagus.  10,  The 
stomach.  11,  11,  The  liver.  12,  The  gall-bladder.  13,  Its  duct.  14,  The 
duodenum.  15,  The  pancreas.  16,  The  spleen.  17,  17,  17,  17,  The  small 
intestine.  18,  The  caecum.  19,  Ihe  appendix  vermiformis.  20,  20,  The  as- 
cending  colon.     21,  The  transverse  colon.     22,  22,  The  descending  colon. 

23,  The  sigmoid  flexure  of  the  colon.     24,  The  rectum. 

B.  Digestive  Organs  of  a  Fowl. — 9,  The  oesophagus.  8,  The  crop  (inglu- 
vies).  7,  The  second  stomach  (proventriculus).  10,  The  gizzard.  11,  11,  The 
liver.  12,  The  gall-bladder.  13,  The  bile  ducts.  14,  14,  14,  14,  The  duode- 
num.    15,  The  pancreas.     16,  The  cseca  (pouches).     17,  The  large  intestine. 

24,  The  cloaca.     25,  The  trachea. 

C.  Digestive  Organs  of  an  Ox. — 1,  The  oesophagus.  2,  2,  The  rumen 
(paunch).  3,  The  second  stomach  (reticulum).  4,  The  omasum  (maniplies). 
5,  The  fourth  stomach  or  abomasum  (rennet).     6,  The  duodenum  (intestine). 

D.  Digestive  Organs  of  an  Insect. — 8,  The  crop.  9,  The  gullet.  10,  The 
gizzard.  14,  14,  The  chylific  (digestive)  stomach.  16,  16,  Biliary  vessels. 
17,  The  intestine.     18,  The  renal  vessels.     24,  The  cloaca. 

E.  Digestive  Organs  of  the  Sword-Fish. — 11,  II,  The  liver.  13,  The  bile 
duct.  16,  16,  The  caecas  (pouches).  17,  17,  17,  The  intestine.  24,  The  large 
intestine. 

F.  Digestive  Organs  of  the  Herring. — 1,  1,  The  air-bladder.  2,  The  air- 
duct  (pneumatic).  9,  The  oesophagus.  10,  The  stomach.  16,  The  casca. 
17, 17,  17,  The  intestine. 

CHAET  No.  5. 

ABSORPTIVE  SYSTEM— HUMAN  AND    COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Absorbent  Vessels  in  Man. — 1,  2,  3,  4,  Lymphatic  vessels  and  glands  of 
the  lower  extremities.  6,  6,  Inguinal  lymphatics  and  glands.  8,  Lymphati-.^ 
vessels  of  the  kidney.  12,  The  thoracic  duct.  10,  10,  10,  The  intercosta. 
lymphatics.  11,  The  receptaculum  chyli.  13,  Lymphatics  of  the  neck.  14, 
14,  Carotid  arteries.  15,  Axillary  glands.  16,  17,  18,  Lymphatics  of  the 
arm  and  hand.  19,  Lymphatics  of  the  face.  20,  The  right  subclavian  vein. 
21,  The  junction  of  the  thoracic  duct  with  the  left  subclavian  vein. 


V  KEY  TO   NEW   OUTLINE    ZOOLOGICAL   CHARTS. 

B.  Section  of  the  Layers  of  the  Skin. — 1,  The  dermis.  2,  3,  The  epider- 
mis.    4,  The  rete  mucosum.     5,  Subcutaneous  connective  and  adipose  tissue. 

6,  Tactile  papillse.  7,  Sweat  or  perspiratory  glandf,  8,  The  duct  of  the 
sweat  glands.  9,  Spiral  passages  of  the  ducts  through  the  epidermis.  10, 
10,  The  termination  of  the  ducts  on  the  surface  of  the  epidermis. 

C.  Section  of  the  Papillse  and  Glands  of  the  Shin. — 1,  1,  1,  1,  Ridges  of  the 
cuticle  (cut  vertical).  2,  2,  2,  Furrows  or  wrinkles  of  the  cuticle.  3,  The 
epidermis.     4,  The  rete  mucosum.     5,  The  dermis.     6,  6,  6,  The  papillae.     7, 

7,  Small  furrows  between  the  papillEe.  8,  8,  8,  8,  Deeper  furrows  between 
each  couple  of  the  papillae.  9,  Fat  cells.  10,  10,  10,  The  adipose  layer,  with 
numerous  fat  vesicles.  11,  11,  Cellular  fibres  of  the  adipose  tissue.  12,  Two 
hairs.  13,  Sweat  or  perspiratory  gland,  with  its  spiral  duct.  14,  A  sudor- 
iferous gland  with  a  duct  less  spiral.  15,  15,  Oil-glands,  with  ducts  opening 
into  the  sheath  of  the  hair. 


CHART  No.  6. 
RESPIRATORY  SYSTEM—HUMAN  AND   COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Respiratory  Organs  of  Man. — 1,  The  larynx.  2.  The  trachea.  3,  The 
right  bronchia.     4,  The  left  bronchia.     5,  6,  7,  Lobes  of  the  right  lung.     8, 

9,  Subdivisions  of  the  bronchi  or  bronchial  tubes.     10,  10,  10,  10,  Air  cells. 
11,  11,  The  diaphragm. 

B.  Diagram  of  the  Blood-vessels  in  Man. — 1,  The  vena  cava  descendens. 
2,  The  vena  cava  ascendens.  3,  The  right  ventricle  of  the  heart.  4,  The 
left  ventricle.  5,  6,  The  aorta.  7,  The  pulmonary  artery.  8,  9,  Divisions 
of  the  pulmonary  artery.     11,  Pulmonary  vein. 

C.  Section  of  a  Quadruped. — 1,  The  oesophagus.  2,  The  trachea.  5,  6, 
The  lungs.  7,  The  heart.  8,  The  stomach.  9,  The  liver.  10,  10,  Intestines. 
11,  11,  The  diaphragm.  12,  13,  The  kidney  and  duct.  14,  The  brain.  15, 
15,  15,  The  spinal  cord.     16,  16,  16,  The  vertebrae. 

D.  Section  of  a  Lobule  of  a  Bird's  Lung. — 2,  A  bronchial  tube.  3,  4,  Divis- 
ions of  a  bronchus  that  end  in  sacs.     8,  8,  9,  9,  Abdominal  air-sacs. 

E.  Lung  of  a  Goose. — 2,  A  bronchus.    3,  4,  The  bronchial  tubes  laid  open. 

10,  10,  Apertures  of  communication  with  air-cells.     11,  11,  Abdominal  bron- 
chial orifices. 

G.  Respiratory  Organs  of  the  Water-scorpion. — 1,  The  head.  2,  The  base 
of  the  first  pair  of  feet.  3,  The  first  ring  of  the  thorax.  4,  The  base  of 
wings.  5,  Base  of  the  second  pair  of  feet.  6,  6,  6,  6,  Stigmata  (opening  at 
the  edge  of  each  joint).     7,  7,  7,  7,  Tracheae  (air-tubes).     8,  8,  Air-sacs. 

F.  Diagram  of  the  Bronchial  Leaflets  of  the  God. — 1,  A  section  of  a  bron- 
chial arch.     2,  3,  Bronchial  leaflets  or  plates. 

J.  Diagram  of  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood  through  the  Bronchial  Leaflets. — 
1,  A  section  of  a  bronchial  arch.  2,  A  section  of  a  bronchial  artery.  3,  3, 
An  arterial  branch  along  the  outer  margin  of  the  processes,  giving  off  capil- 
lary vessels  to  the  leaflets.  4,  A  vein  that  receives  the  blood  from  the  capil- 
laries of  the  inner  margin  of  the  process.     5,  Bronchial  vein. 


*f- 


KEY  TO  NEW  OUTLINE   ZOOLOGICAL   CHARTS.        vi 

H.  A  Plexus  of  Capillary  Vessels. 

K.  Diagram  of  the  Relative  Positions  of  the  Blood-vessels  to  the  Air-cells.^ 
1,  A  bronchial  tube  communicatiDg  with  the  air-cells,  2,  2,  2.  3,  A  branch 
of  the  pulmonary  artery  containing  bluish  blood.  4,  A  branch  of  a  pulmon- 
ary vein  containing  scarlet  or  purified  blood. 

CHAET  No.  7. 
CIRCULATORY  SYSTEM— HUMAN  AND    COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Circulation  in  Man. — 3,  The  right  ventricle.  4,  The  right  auricle.  5, 
Arch  of  aorta.  6,  Left  pulmonary  artery.  7,  The  vena  cava  descendens.  8, 
The  vena  cava  ascendens.  9,  The  descending  aorta.  10,  The  right  femoral 
artery.  11,  The  left  femoral  vein.  12,  The  subclavian  artery.  13,  The  sub- 
clavian vein.  14,  The  jugular  vein.  15,  The  basilic  vein.  16,  The  cephalic 
vein.  17,  The  kidney.  18,  The  brachial  artery.  19,  The  ulnar  artery.  20, 
The  radial  artery.  21,  The  anterior  tibial  artery.  22,  The  posterior  tibial 
artery. 

B.  Diagram  of  the  Circulation  in  Reptiles. — 1,  Ventricle.  2,  3,  Left  auri- 
cle.    4,  Right  auricle.     The  arrows  show  the  direction  of  the  blood. 

C.  Diagram  of  the  Circulation  in  the  Fish. — 1,  The  pericardium.  2,  The 
auricle  that  receives  blood  from  the  body.  3,  The  ventricle  that  sends  blood 
to  the  gills. 

D.  Diagram  of  the  Heart  of  Mammals. — 1,  The  vena  cava  descendens.  2, 
The  vena  cava  ascendens.  3,  The  right  auricle.  4,  The  opening  between  the 
right  auricle  and  right  ventricle.  5,  The  right  ventricle.  6,  The  tricuspid 
valve.  7,  The  pulmonary  artery.  8,  8,  Its  branches.  9,  The  semi-lunar 
valves  of  pulmonary  artery.  10,  The  septum  between  the  two  ventricles  of 
the  heart.  11,  11,  The  pulmonary  veins.  12,  The  left  auricle.  13,  The 
opening  between  the  left  auricle  and  the  left  ventricle.  14,  The  left  ven- 
tricle. 15,  The  mitral  valve.  16,  The  aorta.  17,  The  semi-lunar  valves  of 
the  aorta. 

E.  The  Heart  and  Arteries  of  a  Snail. — 2,  The  stomach.     3,  3,  The  intes 
tine.     5,  The  heart.     6,  The  aorta.     7,  The  pulmonary  artery. 

CHAET  No.  8. 
NERVOUS  SYSTEM— HUMAN  AND   COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Section  of  the  Human  Brain  and  Spinal  Column. — 1,  The  cerebrum.  2, 
The  cerebellum.  3,  The  medulla  oblongata.  4,  4,  The  medulla  spinalis  (spinal 
cord)  in  the  canal  formed  by  the  vertebraa  of  the  spinal  column. 

B.  Back  view  of  the  Brain  and  Nerves  in  Man. — 1,  The  cerebrum.  2,  The 
cerebellum.  3,  The  spinal  cord.  4,  Nerves  of  the  face.  5,  Brachial  plexus 
of  nerves.  6,  Internal  cutaneous.  7,  Ulnar.  8,  Musculo-spiral.  9,  Circum- 
flex. 10,  Intercostal.  11,  Lumbar  plexus.  12,  Sacral  plexus.  13,  Posterior 
tibial.     14,  Anterior  tibial.     15,  Popliteal.     16,  Sciatic.     17,  Coccygeal. 

C.  The  Sympathetic  Nerves. — 1,  The  renal  plexus  of  nerves.  2,  3,  4,  Lum- 
bar ganglion.     5,  Aortic  plexus.     6,  Solar  plexus.     7,  Dorsal  ganglia,     8,  9, 


Vll       KEY   TO   NEW   OUTLINE   ZOOLOGICAL   CHARTS. 

Cardiac  nerves.  10,  Inferior  cervical  ganglia.  11,  Brachial  plexus.  12» 
Superior  cervical  ganglia. 

D.  Base  of  the  Brain  of  a  Horse. — 1,  The  cerebrum.  2,  The  optic  ganglion, 
3,  The  cerebellum.     4,  The  medulla  oblongata  and  spinal  cord. 

E.  Brain  of  an  Alligator. — 1,  The  olfactory  ganglion.  2,  The  cerebrum. 
3,  The  optic  ganglion.  4,  The  cerebellum.  5,  The  medulla  oblongata  and 
spinal  cord. 

F.  Brain  of  a  Bird. — 1,  The  cerebrum.  2,  The  optic  ganglion.  3,  The 
cerebellum.     4,  The  medulla  oblongata. 

G.  Brain  of  a  Fish. — 1,  The  olfactory  ganglion.  2,  The  cerebrum.  3, 
The  optic  ganglion.  4,  The  cerebellum.  5,  The  medulla  oblongata  and  spinal 
cord. 

H.  Nervous  System  of  the  Beetle. — 1,  1,  2,  2,  Nervous  ganglions  and  cords. 
I.  Diagram  of  the  Nervous  System  of  the  Centipede. — 1,  Nervous  ganglia. 
J.  Diagram  of  the  Nervous  System  of  the  Star-Fish. 

CHAET   No.  9. 
SPECIAL   SENSE— HUMAN  AND   COMPARATIVE. 

A.  The  Nervous  System  of  Man. — The  convolutions  of  the  large  brain  (cere- 
brum). 2,  The  lesser  brain  (cerebellum).  3,  The  cervical  nerves.  4,  The 
dorsal  nerves.  5,  The  lumbar  nerves.  6,  The  sciatic.  7,  The  peroneal  nerve. 
8,  The  posterior  tibial  nerve.     9,  Median  nerve. 

B.  Section  of  the  Globe  of  the  Eye. — 1,  The  choroid  coat  of  the  eye.  2,  The 
sclerotic  coat.  3,  The  retina.  4,  The  cornea.  5,  5,  The  iris.  6,  The  pupil. 
8,  9,  The  chambers  of  the  eye  that  contain  the  aqueous  humor.  10,  The  crys- 
talline lens.  11,  11,  The  vitreous  humor.  12,  Arteria  centralis  retinas.  13, 
The  optic  nerve. 

C.  Distribution  of  the  Trifacial  {fifth  pair)  Nerve. — 1,  The  trifacial  nerve. 

2,  A  branch  that  passes  to  the  eye  (ophthalmic).  3,  A  branch  distributed  to 
the  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw  (superior  maxillary).  4,  The  branch  that  passes 
to  the  tongue  (5)  and  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw  (the  inferior  maxillary).  6,  The 
gustatory  branch.     7,  Inferior  dental  nerve. 

D.  Distribution  of  the  Olfactory  Nerve. — 1,  The  olfactory  (or  nerve  of 
smell).     2,  2,  The  fine  divisions  of  this  nerve  on  the  membrane  of  the  nose. 

3,  A  branch  of  the  fifth  pair  (trifacial)  nerve. 

E.  Front  view  of  the  Organ  of  Hearing. — 1,  The  auditory  canal.  2,  The 
drum  of  the  ear  (membrana  tympani).  The  chain  of  bones  in  the  ear  (3, 
The  malleus.  4,  The  incus,  and,  5,  The  stapes).  6,  The  cavity  of  the  tym- 
panum. 7,  The  vestibule.  8,  9,  10,  The  semi-circular  canals.  11,  11,  12, 
Channels  of  the  cochlea.  13,  Cavity  in  the  mastoid  portion  of  temporal  bone. 
14,  The  opening  from  the  middle  ear  to  the  throat  (Eustachian  tube). 

F.  Compound  Eye  of  the  Bee.  —  Its  division  into  facets  (highly  mag- 
nified). 

F.  Facets  still  more  highly  magnified. 

F.  Facets  with  hairs  growing  between  them. 


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ments of  Latin  Pronunciation,"  etc.  i2mo.  Fine  cloth.  90 
cents. 

lish  language  so  thoroughly  and  so  suc- 
cessfully as  this  distinguished  savant  ol 
Pennsylvania,  and  this  little  treatise  is 
the  latest  fruit  of  his  ripe  scholarship 
and  patient  research.  No  newspaper 
notice  can  do  justice  to  the  work,  for  it 
cannot  bedescribed,  and  must  bestudied 
to  be  appreciated."  —  Philadelphia 
Evening  Bulletin. 

Walke7^'s   Science  of   Wealth.     A  Manual  of 

Political  Economy,  embracing  the  Laws  of  Trade,  Currency, 

and  Finance.     Condensed  and  Arranged  expressly  for  Use  as  a 

Text-book.      By   Amasa   Walker,   LL.D.,  late   Lecturer  on 

Public  Economy,  Amherst  College.     Student's  edition.     i2mo. 

Extra  cloth.     $1.50. 

"  I  have,  during  the  past  year,  made 
use  of  Dr.  A.  Walker's  'Science  of 
Wealth'  in  the  new  and  condensed  form 
he  has  given  it,  in  giving  instruction  to 
the  senior  class  in  Political  Economy, 
and  have  found  the  book  better  adapted 
than  any  other  with  which  I  am  ac- 
quainted for  use  in  a  college  class-room. 

Berkeley  s  Principles  of  Human  Knowledge.    A 

Treatise  concerning  the  Principles  of  Human  Knowledge.     By 

George  Berkeley,  D.D.,  formerly  Bishop  of  Cloyne.     With 

Prolegomena,  and  with  Illustrations  and   Annotations,  Select, 

Translated,  and   Original.      By  Charles   P.  Krauth,  D.D., 

Norton  Professor  of  Systematic   1  heology  and  Church  Polity  in 

the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Theological  Seminaiy ;  Professor  of 

Intellectual  and  Moral  Philosophy,  and    Vice-Provost  of  the 

University  of  Pennsylvania.      ~  ~ 

Frof.  A.  C.  Fraser,  of  the  University 
of  Edinburgh,  says  of  "  Berkeley's 
Principles:"  "It  would  be  difficult  to 
name  a  book  in  ancient  or  modern  phi- 
losophy which  contains  more  fervid  and 


It  is  clear, compact, and  ample  in  its  illus- 
trations."— Prof.  Jules  H.  Seelye, 
Amherst  College,  Massachzisetts. 

"  It  is,  in  my  opinion,  the  best  work 
on  this  subject." — W.  T.  Harris, 
Sii/>erintendefU  0/  Schools,  St.  Louis, 
Missouri. 


8vo.     Extra  cloth.     ^3.00. 

ingenious  reasoning  than  is  here  em. 
ployed  to  meet  supposed  objections,  01 
to  unfold  possible  applications  to  relig- 
ion and  science." 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  ^  CO. 

Neelys  Elementary  Speller  and  Reader.      Con- 

taining  the  Principles  and  Practice  of  English  Orthography  and 
Orthoepy  systematically  developed.  Designed  to  accord  with 
the  "  present  usage  of  literary  and  well-bred  society."  In  three 
parts.  By  Rev.  John  Neely.  Fotirth  Edition,  carefully  revised. 
i6mo.     Boards.     20  cents. 

Turner    on    Ptmctuation.      A  Hand- Book  of 

Punctuation,  containing  the  more  Important  Rules,  and  an  Ex- 
position of  the  Principles  upon  which  they  depend.  By  Joseph 
A.  Turner,  M.D.  New,  Revised  Edition.  i6mo.  Limp 
cloth.     75  cents. 

Smitlis  New  Geography,     Containing  a  concise 

Text  and  Explanatory  Notes.     Based  on  a  Combination  of  the 

Analytical,  Synthetical,  and  Comparative  Systems.     With  more 

than   100  Maps  of  Religion,  Government,  Civilization,  Races, 

Countries,  Roman  Empire,  Vicinities,  Rain,  Wind,  Seasons,  Iso- 

thermals,  Solar  System,  etc.,  and  combining  with  much  new  and 

valuable  matter  many  features  not  found  in  any  other  work  of  its 

class.     By  Roswell  C.  Smith.    Quarto.    Half  bound.     ^1.75. 

"Simple  and  concise,  but  not  dry  ; 
philosophical,  yet  practical.  Combin- 
ing more  of  the  essential  requisites  of  a 

Allen's  Co7nprehensive  Geography,     Combining 

Physical,  Mathematical,  and  Political  Geography  with  Important 
Historical  Facts.  Illustrated  with  numerous  accurate  Maps  and 
Engravings.  By  F.  A.  Allen  and  B.  F.  Shaw.  4to.  Boards. 
^1.60. 


Grammar  and  High  School  Geography 
than  any  work  extant." 


The  early  animals  whose  remains  are 
numerous  are  objects  of  curiosity,  the 
vegetation  to  which  we  trace  the  coal  for- 
mations, the  later  plants  and  the  higher 
animals,  including  man;  the  great  em- 
pires of  antiquity  ;  the  theories  of  the 
ancients  concerning  the  earth ;  the  results 
of  modern  investigation  ;  the  political 
divisions  of  the  present  day, — these  are 
spoken  of  in  their  natural  order. 

This  chronological  arrangement  facil- 


itates the  elucidation  of  the  mathemat- 
ical part  of  the  study.  It  enables  the 
pupil  to  see  the  earth  as  the  ancients 
saw  it;  to  change  his  ideas  as  mankind 
changed  theirs ;  and  to  regard  the  ter- 
restrial mass  as  men  regard  it  now. 
Instead  of  exhibiting  the  globe  at  the 
outset,  it  assists  the  reasoning  powers 
in  slowly  forming  into  a  round  body 
the  apparently  flat  expanse  of  land  and 
water. 


Allen's  Primary  Geography.      On  the  basis  of 

the  Object  Method  of  Instruction.  By  F.  A.  Allen,  Principal 
of  Pennsylvania  State  Normal  School,  Mansfield,  Pa.  Illus- 
trated with  Maps  and  Engravings.     4to.     Boards.     60  cents. 

Truthful  pictures  are  the  nearest  rep-  tinent  to  continent,  viewing  noteworthy 
resentations  of  objects.  By  their  aid  I  objects,  speaking  of  their  uses,  men- 
commenced  with  the  pupil  himself,  sur-  tioning  leading  facts  about  seas,  lakes, 
veyed  his  common  surroundings,  ram-  rivers,  mountains,  animals,  and  plants, 
bled  and  journeyed  with  him  from  place  in  language  to  interest  and  in  a  manner 
to  place,  from  State  to  State,  from  con-  to  incite. 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  J.  B.  LIPPING O TT  &>  CO. 


Johnson's  Aiialytical  Geometiy.     An  Ele^nen- 

tary  Treatise,  embracing  Plane  Co-ordinate  Geometry,  and  an 
Introduction  to  Geometry  of  Three  Dimensions.  Designed  as 
a  Text-Book  for  Colleges  and  Scientific  Schools.  By  Wm. 
WooLSEY  Johnson,  B.A.,  Assistant  Professor  of  Mathejnatics, 
U.  S.  Naval  Academy.     i2mo.     Cloth.     ^i.8o. 


"  This  is  one  of  the  simplest  as  well  as 
most  intelligible  and  practical  books  on 
Exact  Science  that  has  come  under  our 
notice." — Philadelphia.  Press. 

"  I  am  convinced  that  it  is  an  excel- 
lent work,  and  well  calculated  for  a 
text-book  for  colleges  and  scientific 
schools." — Prof.  N.  M.  Crawford, 
Georgetown  College,  Ky. 


"  It  is  superior  to  all  text-books  of 
the  same  class  that  have  as  yet  come 
under  my  observation,  in  clearness  of 
expression  and  well-chosen  illustra- 
tions of  general  solutions." — C.  Hom- 
UNG,  Pro/,  of  Mathetnatics  in  Hills- 
boro'  College. 

"  It  is  eminently  suited  to  the  wants 
of  all  students." — College  Courant. 


Harness  Manual  of  United  States  Surveyiitg, 

A  System  of  Rectangular  Surveying  employed  in  Subdividing 
the  Public  Lands  of  the  United  States,  etc.  Illustrated  with 
Forms,  Diagrams,  and  Maps.  Constituting  a  complete  Text- 
liook  of  Government  Surveying.  By  J.  H.  Hawes,  late  Prin- 
cipal Clerk  of  Surveys  in  the  General  Land  Office.  Crown  8vo. 
Extra  cloth.     ^3.00. 


"  This  book  embodies  in  a  complete 
form  all  the  varied  information  so  often 
sought  after  by  county  surveyors  and 
others  in  regard  to  the  system  in  use 
by  the  United  States  for  surveyings, 
subdividing  sections,  running  and 
making  boundaries,  etc." — New  Or- 
leans Times. 


'•'  This  volume  contains  the  system  of 
rectangular  surveying  employed  in  sub- 
dividing sections  and  restoring  lost  cor- 
ners of  the  public  lands.  The  volume 
is  compact  and  handsome,  and  will  be 
found  to  answer  its  purpose  admirably." 
—  Chicago  Tribune. 


Bledsoe  s    Philosophy   of  Mathematics.      With 

Reference  to  Geometry  and  the  Infinitesimal  Method.    By  A.  T. 
Bledsoe,  LL.D.,  late  Professor  of  Mathematics  in  the  University 

"A  new  treatise  on  the  calculus,  in 
which    the    whole    philosophy    of   the 


higher  mathematical  branches  is  fol- 
lowed out  from  the  first  appearance  of 
its  elements  in  Greek  geometry."— 
New  Orleans  Tivtes. 


of  Virginia.     i2mo.     Cloth 

"  The  author  was  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  University  of  Virginia. 
This  is  an  evidence  of  first-class  abil- 
ities as  a  geometer.  The  object  of  the 
book  is  to  shed  clearer  scientific  light 
on  the  Infinitesimal  Calculus." — Uni- 
verse, Philadelphia, 

Halloweir s  Geornetrical  Analysis ;  or^  the  Con- 

struction  and  solution  of  Various  Geometrical  Problems  from 
Analysis,  by  Geometry,  Algebra,  and  Differential  Calculus  ;  also, 
the  Geometrical  Construction  of  Algebraic  Equations,  and  a 
Mode  of  Constructing  Curves  of  the  Higher  Order  by  means 
of  Points.    With  Portrait  from  steel.     8vo.    Cloth  extra.    ^2.50. 

Playfairs  Euclid.    Fro7n  the  latest  London  Edi- 

tion.  Revised  and  Corrected.  By  J.  Playfair,  F.R.S.,  L.  and 
E      l2mo.     Half  roan.     ^1.50. 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  &-  CO. 


Atwaters  Elementary  Logic.     Designed  Espe- 

cially  for  the  Use  of  Teachers  and  Learners.  By  L.  H.  At- 
WATER,  Professor  of  Mental  and  Moral  Philosophy  in  the  Col- 
lege  of  New  Jersey.     l2mo.     Cloth.     ^1.25. 


"  This  manual  shows  the  hand  of  a 
master,  and  will  speedily  take  its  proper 
place  as  a  valuable  contribution  to  the 
cause  of  liberal  education." — Cottgre- 
^ational  Quarterly. 

"I    observe   in   Atwater's    excellent 


Manual  of  Elementary  Logic  a  disposi- 
tion to  unite  the  real  improvements  of 
the  analytic  with  the  established  truths 
of  the  old  logic." — Dk.James  McCosh, 
late  Professor  of  Logic  in  Queett's 
College,  Belfast,  Ireland. 


derous  volume  in  search  of  information, 
will  yet  set  out  on  a  short  journey  in 
pursuit  of  science  with  alacrity  and 
profit. 


Dr.  Blair  s  Lectures  on  Rhetoric,     Abridged^ 

with  Questions.     60  cents. 

The  want  of  a  system  of  Rhetoric 
upon  a  concise  plan  has  rendered  this 
liLtle  volume  acceptable  to  the  teaching 
and  reading  public.  Many  who  are  ter- 
rified at  the  idea  of  travelling  over  a  pon- 

Sanisons  Art  Qdticis^n.    Comprising  a  Treatise 

on  the  Principles  of  Man's  Nature  as  Addressed  by  Art ;  together 
with  a  Historic  Survey  of  the  Methods  of  Art  Execution  in 
the  Departments  of  Drawing,  Sculpture,  Architecture,  Painting, 
Landscape  Gardening,  and  the  Decorative  Arts.  Designed  as 
a  Text-Book  for  Schools  and  Colleges,  and  as  a  Hand-Book  for 
Amateurs  and  Artists.  By  G.  W.  Samson,  President  of  Cohun- 
bia  College.  8vo.  Cloth.  I3.15.  ABRIDGED  EDITION.  i2mo. 
Cloth.     Si.  60. 


sion  of  every  lover  of  the  beautiful,  and 
the  abridgment  deserves  to  be  intro- 
duced into  all  our  high  schools,  and 
made  a  part  of  common  education." — 
North  American. 


"  Art  criticism,  boiled  down  into 
small  doses  for  amateurs  and  students, 
is  the  function  of  Dr.  G.  W.  Samson, 
President  of  Columbia  College,  Wash- 
ington."— Philadelphia  Bulletin. 

"This  work  should  be  in  the  posses- 

Malcoins  Butler's  Analogy.      The  Analogy  oj 

Religion  to  the  Constitution  and  Course  of  Nature.  To  which 
are  added  Two  Brief  Dissertations.  I.  On  Personal  Identity. 
IL  On  the  Nature  of  Virtue.  By  Joseph  BuTLER,  D.C.L.  With 
Introduction,  Notes,  Conspectus,  and  ample  Index.  Prepared 
by  Howard  Malcom,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Pj-esident  of  the  Univer- 
sity at  Lewisburg.     i2mo.     Extra  cloth.     ^1.15. 


"  We  fully  justify  the  editor's  reasons 
for  offering  angther  edition  of  Butler, 
viz.,  that  he  had  found  none  satisfactory 
as  a  text-book.  .  .  .  His  Introduc- 
tion is  valuable,  but  his  admirable  Con- 
spectus, of  nearly  fifty  pages  of  fine 
type,  gives  a  key  to  the  work  which 
will  make  the  study  of  Butler  a  new 
kind  of  business.  We  have  been  sur- 
prised and  delighted  with  this  new  aid 


afforded  by  President  Malcom.  In  our 
opinion  this  edition  will  be  the  text- 
book used  by  all  intelligent  instructors 
who  once  give  it  an  examination.  Per- 
sons who  have  been  repelled  from  study- 
ing Butler  by  the  difficulties  both  of  the 
argument  and  the  style,  will  find  these 
difficulties  chiefly  disappear  by  the  facil- 
ities Dr.  M.  has  afforded." — Southern 
Baptist. 


Studies  in  the  English  of  Btmyan,      By  Prof, 

T.  B.  Grier.     i2mo.     Cloth.     ^1.25. 


PUBLICATIONS   OF  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  &^   CO. 


Phelps  s  Chemisby^for  Beginners.   Designed  for 

Common  Schools,  and  the  Younger  Pupils  of  Higher  Schools 
and  Academies.  Revised  and  enlarged.  By  Mrs.  Lincoln 
Phelps.     i6mo.     Half  roan.     60  cents. 


The  design  of  this  work  is  to  teach 
Chemistry  to  beginners.  The  author 
has  sought  to  present  the  elements  of  the 


science  in  a  popular  and  attractive  form, 
without  offending  the  scholar  by  mar- 
ring its  classical  beauty  and  proportions. 


Phelps  s  Chemistry,  for-  Collegiate  Institutions^ 

Schools,  Families,  and  Private  Students.  New  edition,  revised 
and  corrected.  With  an  Appendix  containing  the  latest  discove- 
ries and  improvements  to  1866.  By  Mrs.  Lincoln  Phelps. 
i2mo.     Half  roan.     ^^1.35. 

Phelps  s  Natural  Philosophy,  for  Schools,  Fami- 

lies,  and  Private  Students.  By  Mrs.  Lincoln  Phelps.  New 
edition,  revised  and  enlarged.      i2mo.     Half  roan.     ^1.35. 

The  author  has  endeavored  to  invest    I    to  enliven  the  interest  of  the  young  as 
the  subject  with  freshness  and  interest,    |    they  climb  the  hill  of  science. 

Phelps  s  Natural  Philosophy,  for  Beginners.  De- 

signed  for  Common  Schools  and  Families.  New  edition,  revised 
and  enlarged.  By  Mrs.  Lincoln  Phelps.  i6mo.  Half  roan. 
60  cents. 


The  attention  of  the  young  should  be 
directed  to  natural  operations,  that  thus 


the  powers  of  observation  and  compari- 
son may  be  developed  and  strengthened. 


Phelps  s  Lectttres  07i  Botany.     Explainirig  the 

Structure,  Classification,  and  Uses  of  Plants. .  Illustrated  upon 
the  Linnaean  and  Natural  Methods.  New  Edition.  Revised 
and  enlarged.  With  a  Supplement,  containing  a  Familiar  In- 
troduction to  the  Natural  Orders,  and  an  Artificial  Key  for 
Analysis  of  the  same.  By  Mrs.  Lincoln  Phelps.  The  three 
hundred  AND  seventy-fifth  THOUSAND.  i2mo.  Half  roan. 
^1.60. 


"  The  Natural  System  of  Botany  will 
be  found  here  fully  exhibited  in  all  its 
essential  features,  according  to  the 
method  of  Prof.  Lindley,  and  with  full 
descriptions  of  Natural  Orders.  .  .  . 
I  think  your  work  well  calculated  to  at- 


tract beginners,  and  especially  young 
ladies,  to  the  study,  by  conducting  them 
in  the  most  agreeable  way  to  the  vesti- 
bule of  the  botanical  temple." — Hon. 
Wm.  Darlington,  M.D. 


Prick's  Physical  Technics.  Practical  Instructions 

for  making  Experiments  in  Physics  and  the  Construction  of 
Physical  Apparatus  with  the  most  limited  means.  By  Dr.  T. 
Frick.  Translated  by  John  D.  Easter,  Ph.D.  Illustrated  by 
over  800  Engravings.     8vo.     Cloth.     ^^2.50. 


It  is  the  object  of  this  work  on  the  one 
hand  to  furnish  an  introduction  to  physi- 
cal experimentation,  to  describe  all  the 
particulars  requisite  to  success,  to  call 
attention  to  those  points  which  must  be 


considered  in  the  purchase  and  use  of 
apparatus ;  and  on  the  other  hand  to 
give  instructions  for  the  construction  of 
apparatus  in  the  cheapest  and  most 
effective  way. 


try,  with  the  principles  upon  which  they 
are  founded,  and  the  means  of  asserting 
and  maintaining  them  in  civil  and  crim- 
inal cases. 


PUBLICATIONS   OF  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  6-   CO, 

SmitJis  Elements  of  the  Laws ;  or^  Outlines  of 

the  System  of  Civil  and  Criminal  Laws  in  Force  in  the  United 
States  and  in  the  several  States  of  the  Union.  Designed  as  a 
text-book  and  for  general  use.  By  Thomas  L.  Smith,  late 
yudge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  State  of  Indiana.  Nevir 
edition,  revised.     i2mo.     Fine  cloth.     ^1.50. 

This  work  is  designed  to  enable  any 
one  to  acquire  a  competent  knowledge 
of  his  legal  rights  and  privileges  in  all 
of  the  most  important  political  and  busi- 
ness relations  of  the  citizens  of  the  coun- 

Schmitzs  German  Grammar.    A  Text-book  for 

the  Practical  Study  of  the  German  Language.  By  J.  Adolph 
SCHMITZ,  A.M.,  Professor  of  Modern  Languages  and  Litera- 
ture in  the  University  of  Wooster,  Ohio^  and  Herman  J. 
SCHMITZ,  Instructor  of  German  and  French,  Newark,  New 
yersey.     l2mo.     Half  roan.     ^1.50. 

"Schmitz's  'German  Grammar'  I 
have  received  and  examined,  and,  to 
my  opinion,  it  is  far  superior  to  any 
other  German  grammar  thus  far  pub- 
lished— the  best  ever  come  to  my  sight. 

Long's  Primary  Grammar,    An  Lntrodudion  to 

English  Grammar.  An  easy  Method  for  Beginners.  By  Har- 
riett S.  Long,  Preceptress  in  English  and  French,  St.  Anna's 
Hall,  Brookeville,  Maryland.     i6mo.     Boards.     25  cents. 

Liebers  Civil  Liberty  and  Self-  Goveriiment,    A 

Treatise  on  Civil  Liberty  and  Self-Government.  New  edition, 
revised  and  enlarged.  Edited  by  Theodore  D.  Woolsey. 
8vo.     Extra  cloth.     ^3.15. 

Liebers  Political  Ethics.    A  Manual  of  Political 

Ethics,  designed  chiefly  for  the  use  of  Colleges  and  Students  at 
Law.     2  vols.     8vo.     Extra  cloth.     ^5.50. 

Progress  of  Philosophy.      By   Samuel   Tyler^ 

LL.D.  In  the  Past  and  in  the  Future.  Second  Edition,  en- 
larged.    i2mo.     Cloth.     ^1.75. 

Meredith' s  Every-Day  Errors  of  Speech.     By 

L.  p.  Meredith,  M.D.,  D.D.S.,  author  of  "The  Teeth  and 
How  to  Save  them."     i6mo.     Fine  cloth.     75  cents. 


I  can  fully  recommend  it  to  all  teachers 
of  the  German  language." — Prof. 
Henry  Marin,  State  Normal  School^ 
Oshkosh,  Wisconsifi. 


"  If  any  one  flatters  himself  that  he 
knows  how  to  pronounce  the  English 
language,  let  him  buy  this  thin  little 
volume  of  less  than  one  hundred  pages, 
and  treat  himself  to  a  few  hundred 
surprises.  He  will  probably  rise  up 
from  its  perusal  a  wiser  and  a  better 


man ;  for  it  treats  of  the  common  errors 
of  speech  made  by  educated  persons, 
who  would  be  glad  to  have  their  atten- 
tion called  to  the  mistakes  that  fall 
unconsciously  from  their  tongues."— 
Louisville  Courier-yournal. 


PUBLICATIONS   OF  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  <5r-    CO. 


Morton  and  Leeds  s  Chemistry.      The  Student's 

Practical  Chemistry.  A  Text-book  for  Colleges  and  Schools  on 
Chemical  Physics,  including  Heat,  Light,  and  Electricity,  and  on 
Inorganic  and  Organic  Chemistry.  By  Henry  Morton,  A.M., 
and  Albert  H.  Leeds,  A.M.  Illustrated  with  over  150  Wood- 
cuts.    i2mo.     Cloth.     ^1.75. 


In  this  work  the  student  is  furnished 
with  simple  and  clear  explanations  of 
the  subjects,  and  those  more  advanced 
in  scientific  learning  with  convenient 
memoranda  of  important  facts, numbers, 
references,  etc.    The  effort  has  also  been 


made  to  embody  all  the  valuable  novel- 
ties in  the  branches  discussed  (many  of 
which  have  not  been  introduced  in  any 
text-book),  and  thus  bring  this  work 
down  to  the  present  time. 


Syphers  Histo7y  of  Pennsylvania.     From  the 

First  Settlements  on  the  Delaware  to  the  Present  Time.  De- 
signed for  use  in  Schools,  Academies,  Colleges,  Families,  and 
Libraries.     With  Statistical  Tables.     By  J.  R.  Sypher.     j^i.25. 


"We  have  always  had  good  histories 
of  the  United  States  adapted  to  schools, 
but  up  to  the  present  time  no  one  has 
given  us  a  School  History  of  Pennsylva- 
nia. You  have  now  supplied  that  want, 
and,  in  the  name  of  the  school  interests 
of  the  Commonwealth,  I  thank  you  for 
it." — Hon.  J.  P.  Wickersham,  State 
SuJ>t.  of  Co7iimo7i  Schools. 


"  It  is  the  best  State  history  for  com- 
mon use  within  our  knowledge,  and  we 
hope  some  one  will  compile  one  as  good 
of  our  own  State.  When  he  does,  we 
shall  urge  that  it  be  adopted  as  a  reader 
in  all  our  common  schools  and  semina- 
ries, and  thus  brought  home  to  every 
family  and  fireside." — N.  V.  Tributie, 
editorial  by  Hon.  Horace  Greeley. 


History  of  New  fersey.    From  the  Earliest  Set- 

tlements  to  the  Present  Time.  Designed  for  Common  Schools, 
Academies,  Colleges,  Families,  and  Libraries.  By  J.  R.  Sypher 
and  E.  A.  Apgar.     ^1.25. 


"  New  Jersey  may  well  be  proud  of 
her  past,  satisfied  with  her  present,  and 
hopeful  as  to  her  future;  and  all  these 
are  faithfully  portrayed  and  clearly  fore- 
shadowed in  this  little  volume.  We 
trust  it  may  find  its  way  not  only  into 
the  seminaries  or  schools,  but  to  the 


families  and  firesides  of  the  State." — 
New  York  Tribune. 

"This  is  probably  the  best  history  of 
New  Jersey  which  has  yet  been  pub- 
lished. The  whole  story  of  our  State 
is  condensed  into  it." — New  Jersey 
jfournal,  Elizabeth. 


Cameos  from  English  History.    By  the  author  of 

"  The  Heir  of  Redclyffe."    With  vignette  title.     i2mo.    Cloth. 

^1.25.     . 


The  endeavor  has  not  been  to  chroni- 
cle facts,  but  to  put  together  a  series  of 
pictures  of  persons  and  events,  so  as  to 
arrest  the  attention  and  give  some  indi- 


viduality and  distinctness  to  the  recol- 
lection by  gathering  together  details  at 
the  most  memorable  moments. 


Bible  Gems;  or,  Manual  of  Scripture  Lessons. 

Specially  designed  for  Public  Schools,  but  equally  adapted  tc 
Sunday-schools  and  Families.  By  R.  E.  Kremer.  Illustrated. 
i6mo.     314  pp.     Cloth,     ^i.oo. 


PUBLICATIONS   OF  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  6-    CO. 

La  Grammaire  en  Action,     Bulwers  Lady  of 

Lyons.  With  a  complete  Idiomatical  and  Grammatical  Vocabu- 
lary for  Translation  from  English  into  French ;  preceded  by  a 
Synopsis  of  the  most  useful  Rules  of  French  Grammar,  and  a 
Methodical  Table  of  all  Irregular  Verbs  occurring  in  the  Text. 
Also,  various  subjects  for  Original  Composition  in  French,  most 
of  them  under  the  form  (adopted  at  Oxford  and  at  West  Point) 
of  Short  Letters  in  French,  to  be  answered  in  the  same  Lan- 
guage. By  Prof.  B.  Maurice,  AM..,  formej'ly  Assistant  Profes- 
sor U.  S.  Naval  Academy,     i2mo.     Extra  cloth.     ^1.25. 

S2ie  s  Fi^e^ich  Course,    A  New  System  of  Lnsiruc- 

tion  in  French.  By  Prof.  Jean  B.  Sue,  A.M.,  late  Instructor 
of  French  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.     Comprising  : 

/.  First  L^essons  in  French,    A^i  Lntroduction 

to  the  "  Practical  and  Intellectual  Method  for  Learning  French." 
l2mo.      Half  roan.     90  cents. 

//.  A  New  Practical  and  Intellectual  Method 

for  Learning  French,  grounded  on  Nature's  Teachings ;  adapted 
to  the  System  of  Noel  and  Chapsal.  With  critical  remarks  on 
Grammars  used  in  our  Schools.     Half  roan.     ^1.3$. 

///.  Exercises  on  the  French  Syntax ;  or,  Prac- 

tice  of  the  New  Practical  and  Intellectual  Method  for  Learning 
French,  wherein  learners  have  to  make  direct  application  of 
French  Rules,  and  rectify  the  deviations  made  from  the  French 
Syntax.      i2mo.     Half  roan.     65  cents. 

IV,   The  Vicar  of  Wakefield.    By  Oliver  Gold- 

smith.  Arranged  as  a  Guide  for  the  Construction  of  French 
Sentences,  completing  the  System  of  the  Practical  and  Intel- 
lectual Method  for  Learning  French.     Half  roan.     ^1.35. 

V,  A  Key  for  the  Use  of  Teachers  ajtd  Learn- 

ers,  who,  after  completing  the  regular  course,  may  further  wish 
to  prosecute  their  study  of  the  French  tongue.  i2mo.  Half 
roan.     65  cents. 


"  Mr.  Sue's  New  Method  of  impart- 
ing the  French  language  is  undoubtedly 
the  best  that  has  yet  appeared." — Mad. 
Caroline  Corson. 

"  It  is,  in  my  opinion,  the  best  prac- 
tical treatise  ever  published,  to  teach 
the  French  language  to  English  or  An- 
glo-American pupils." — Prof.  Chas. 
O.  DE  JuviLLE,  West  Chester,  Pa. 


"  I  am  acquainted  with  no  other  pub- 
lished course  that  appears  to  me  so  well 
calculated  by  its  method, by  its  clearness 
and  precision  of  its  rules,  and  by  the  ap- 
propriateness of  its  exercises,  to  ground 
the  pupil  solidly  in  an  accurate  and 
familiar  knowledge  of  the  language." — 
Geo.  Allen,  Prof,  of  Greek  and  Latin 
in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 


Fenelon,  M.  De.     Las  Aveittures  de  Telemaque. 

D'apres  I'Edition  de  M.  Chas.  Le  Brun.     i2mo.     Half  roan. 
^1.25. 


PUBLICATIONS  OP  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  &•   CO. 


S  ANFORD'S 

SERIES  OF  ARITHMETICS. 

SANFORD'S  ANALYTICAL  SERIES. 

COMPKISED  IN  FOUR  BOOKS. 

The  Science  of  Numbers  reduced  to  its  last  analysis.    Mental  and 

Written  Arithmetic  successfully  combined  in  each 

Book  of  the  Series. 

By    SHElHiTOM    I».    S  A.1V  FORT),    ^.IMI., 

Professor  of  Mathematics  in  Mercer  University,  Georgia. 


:F'II^ST    BOOIEC. 
Sanford's  First  Lessons  in  Analytical  Arithmetic.    Comprising 
Mental  and  Written  Exercises.     Handsomely  and  appropriately 
Illustrated.     i6mo.     Half  roan.     27  cents. 

S:BGOn^3D    BOOIC. 
Sanford's    Intermediate    Analytical    Arithmetic.      Comprising 
Mental  and  Written  Exercises.      i6mo.      232  pp.      Half  roan. 
45  cents. 

Ts:i:aiD  boozec. 

Sanford's    Common    School    Analytical    Arithmetic.       i2mo. 
355  pp.     Half  roan.     80  cents. 

IFOTJI^TH    BOOIKI. 
Sanford's  Higher  Analytical  Arithmetic ;  or,  The  Method  of 
making  Arithmetical  Calculations  on  Principles  of  Uni- 
versal Application,  without  the  Aid  of  Formal   Rules. 
i2mo.     419  pp.     Half  roan.     Cloth  sides.     ^1.25. 


From  Prof.  Hugh  S.  Thompson,  Principal  Columbia  Male  Academy, 

Columbia,  S.  C. 

"  Sanford's  Arithmetics  are  superior  to  any  that  I  have  seen  in  the  fulness  of  the 
examples,  the  clearness  and  simplicity  of  the  analyses,  and  the  accuracy  of  the 
rules  and  definitions.  This  opinion  is  based  upon  a.yull  and  thorough  test  in  the 
school-room.  To  those  teachers  who  may  examine  these  Arithmetics  with  refer- 
ence to  introduction,  I  would  especially  commend  the  treatment  of  Percentage  and 
Profit  and  Loss.  No  text-books  that  I  have  ever  used  are  so  satisfactory  to 
■teachers  and  pupils." 

From  Capt.  S.  Y.  Caldwell,  Supt.  of  Nashville  {Tenn.)  Public  Schools. 

"  Your  Intermediate  and  Advanced  Analytical  Arithmetics  are  among  the  best 
I  have  examined. 

"It  is  contrary  to  my  practice  to  write  testimonials  or  recommendations,  but 
the  high  merit  of  your  book  certainly  justifies  it  in  this  instance." 

From  Prof.  B.  Mallon,  Stcperintendent  of  Atlanta  (Ga.)  Public  Schools. 
"  I  think  they  [Sanford's  Arithmetics]  are  the  best  books  on  the  subject  ever 
published ;  and  I  trust  it  will  not  be  long  before  they  will  be  introduced  into  every 
school  in  our  State.     In  my  judgment  they  are  the  very  perfection  of  school-books 
on  Arithmetic." 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  &>  CO. 


BOOKS  FOR  TEACHERS. 


OR, 

That  Part  of  the  Philosophy  of  Education  which  Treats  of 

the  Nature  of  the  Several  Branches  of  Knowledge 

and   the    Method   of  Teaching   Them. 

By  J.  P.  WICKERSHAM,  A.M., 

State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  of  Pennsylvania. 

12mo.     Cloth.     $1.75. 


II. 


WICKERSHAM'S  SCHOOL  ECOiOM! 


I 


A  Treatise  on  the  Preparation,  Organization,  Employments, 
Government,  and  Authorities  of  Schools. 

By  J.  P.  WICKERSHAM,  A.M., 

State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  of  Pennsylvania. 

12mo.     Cloth.     $  1.50, 

SPECIAL   CHAKACTUKISTICS. 

I.  These  works  are  a  philosophical  exposition  of  that  part  of  edu- 
cation of  which  they  treat.  Every  division  will  be  found  in  its  proper 
place,  and  good  reasons  are  always  given  for  its  statements. 

II.  They  are  practical.  Every  teacher  can  make  an  application 
of  their  principles.  They  are  especially  valuable  as  guides  to  young 
teachers. 

III.  Their  style  is  clear  and  pointed.  No  rambling  discussions, 
hiose  narratives,  or  nonsensical  stories  will  be  found  within  their 
pages.  They  claim  rank  with  the  more  sober  and  solid  treatises 
which  form  the  standard  works  on  law  and  medicine. 

IV.  They  are  exhaustive.  Matter  scattered  through  dozens  of 
volumes  on  teaching  is  brought  together  and  condensed  in  these,  and 
nothing  of  importance  appertaining  to  the  subject  is  omitted. 

V.  They  are  now  used  as  text-books  with  marked  success  in  a 
number  of  State  Normal  Schools,  Private  Normal  Schools,  Teachers' 
Institutes  and  Associations. 

VI.  They  contain  matter  which  every  parent  and  every  school 
officer  as  well  as  every  teacher  should  be  acquainted  with. 


PUBLICATIONS   OF  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  &•   CO. 
A  NEW  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


XjIBIBIDS'S 

UNITED  STATES  HISTORY. 

A  History  of  the  United  States  of  America.     Including  some  Im- 
portant Facts  mostly  omitted  in  the  Smaller  Histories. 
Designed  for  General  Reading  and  for  Academies. 

DB"2"     CrOSI-A.13:     ^W^-     Xj  IE  IB  IDS. 

Jlevised  Edition      With  Maps.      12mo.      Extra  C(oth.     $1.75. 


"  An  honest  and  truthful  book,  and  worthy  of  welcome  acceptation  by  all  who 
can  appreciate  the  warp  and  woof  of  American  history  in  their  true  texture  and 
strength,  without  the  gloss  of  a  partisanship  or  patriotism  that  can  see  only  one 
side  of  a  question  or  one  aspect  of  a  fact.  .  .  .  No  other  volume  of  the  same 
size  could  contain  more  extensive  or  varied  information,  or  classify  it  in  better 
proportioned  departments.  As  it  stands,  it  is  the  only  complete  history  of  our 
country  from  the  discovery  of  the  Northmen  to  the  election  of  Mr.  Hayes,  em- 
bracing all  the  leading  events  between  these  two  widely-separated  dates." — 
Literary  IVor/d  (Boston). 

"  We  are  prepared  to  speak  of  it  in  high  terms  of  commendation.  The  work 
is  not  sectional.  .  .  .  An  air  of  calmness  and  candor  pervades  the  book." — 
Nashville  Christian  Advocate. 

"  We  would  heartily  commend  it  as  being,  in  many  respects,  the  best  United 
States  History  at  present  extant  for  use  in  schools,  and  for  a  place  in  the  library 
or  the  family." — Friends'  Review. 


H)  TTj  "F?y  "FPy  "V" '  S 

HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

FOR  SCHOOLS  AND  ACADEMIES. 

By   JOSEPH    T.    r)ERRY, 

Prof essor  of  Ancient  Langtiages  in  the  Academy  of  Richmond  Co.,  Augusta,  Ga. 

With  Numerous  Illustrations.    12mo.    Extra  Cloth.     $1.35. 

This  work  is  comprehensive,  embracing  the  most  important  facts  in  the  history 
of  our  country. 

Its  style  is  perspicuous.  The  author's  aim  has  been  to  place  important  facts  within 
easy  comprehension  of  any  child  old  enough  to  take  up  the  study  of  history.  Derry's 
History  is  designed  as  a  text-book  for  schools,  and  therefore  avoids  metaphysical 
discussions  of  the  theory  of  our  government.  That  portion  which  treats  of  tlie  forma- 
tion of  the  Constitution  and  the  establishment  of  the  Republic  is  easily  understood. 


From  Rev.  W.  W.  Hendrix,  President  Bethel  College,  Tenn. 

"  Having  examined  this  (Derry's)  History,  and  used  it  in  the  class-room,  I  am 
free  to  recommend  it  as  very  well  suited  for  the  purpose  it  is  intended  to  fill.  It  is 
simply  full  of  history,  withotit  the  rubbish  of  individual  opinions  and  partisan 
prejudices."     March  30,  1876. 

From  Rev,  Atticus  G.  Haygood,  D.D.,  President  Emory  College,  Oxford,  Ga. 

"  Prof.  Derry  has  given  us  a  History  for  schools  and  students  in  the  form  of 
alternate  question  and  answer.  We  believe  that  he  has  '  hit  the  mark.'  Prof.  D. 
has  done  his  work  thoroughly,  conscientiously.  It  is  the  book,  as  it  seems  to  us, 
for  Southern  schools,  as  it  is  just  to  both  sections." 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  &•  CO.- 


CUTTER'S  Series 


ON 


Aoalytical  Anatomf,  Pfifsioiogf,  aod  Hygieoej 

HUMAN  AND  COMPARATIVE, 

FOR  SCHOOLS  AND  FAMILIES. 

By  CALVIN  CUTTER,  A.M.,  M.D. 


During  the  past  ten  years  more  than  two  hundred  thousand 
(200,000)  have  been  sold  for  schools.  This  is  the  only  series  of 
works  upon  the  subject  that  is  graded  for  all  classes  of  pupils,  from 
the  primary  school  to  the  college,  the  only  one  that  embraces  Anat- 
omy, Physiology,  and  Hygiene  for  schools,  and  the  only  one  arranged 
so  as  to  be  used  advantageously  with  illustrating  Anatomical  Charts. 


First  Book  on  Analytic  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Hygiene, 

Human   and   Comparative.      196  pp.      With    164  Illustrations. 

I2m().     80  cents. 
Second  Book  on  Analytic  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Hygiene, 

Human  and  Comparative.     With  Questions,  Diagrams,  and 

Illustrations  for  Analytic  Study  and  Unific  Topical  Review. 

309  pp.     With  186  Illustrations.     i2mo.     ^1.35. 
New  Analytic  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Hygiene,  Human 

and  Comparative.    With  Questions,  Diagrams,  and  Illustra 

TiONS  for  Analytic  Study  and  Synthetic  Review.    388  pp.    With 

230  Illustrations.      l2mo.     ^1.50. 


First  Book  on  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Hygiene.    Illustrated. 

i2mo.     70  cents. 
Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Hygiene.    Illustrated.    i2mo.    $1.50. 
Human  and  Comparative  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Hygiene. 

By  Mrs.  E.  P.  Cutter.     Illustrated.     i2mo.     45  cents. 


/1/fiy  OUTLINE  ZOOLOQmL  CHARTS, 

Or  Human  and  Comparative  Anatomical  Plates.  Mounted, 
(Including  Rollers,  etc.)  Nine  in  number.  Three  feet  long 
by  two  feet  wide.    ^15.00.    Half  set.    Five  in  number.    $9.00. 


COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 

This  book  is  due  on  the  date  indicated  below,  or  at  the 
expiration  of  a  definite  period  after  the  date  of  borrowing,  as 
provided  by  the  rules  of  the  Library  or  by  special  arrange- 
ment with  the  Librarian  in  charge. 

DATE  BORROWED 

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DATE  DUE 

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